ChiCheŵa (panjiso kuti Chinyanja) chiyowoyero cha Bantu icho chikuyowoyeka mu Malaŵi na chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu ŵachoko waka mu Zambia na Mozambique.
Chilembo chakwamba chi- chikugwiliskirika ntchito pa viyowoyero, ntheura chiyowoyero ichi chikuchemeka Chichewa na Chinyanja. Mu 1968, pulezidenti Hastings Kamuzu Banda (uyo nayo wakaŵa wa mtundu wa Chewa) wakakhumbanga kuti mu Malaŵi, zina la Chichewa lisinthe kufuma ku Chinyanja. Mu Zambia, chiyowoyero ichi chikuchemeka Nyanja panji Cinyanja/Chinyanja'((chilankhulo) cha nyanja' (kuyowoya za Nyanja ya Malawi).
ChiCheŵa | |
---|---|
Chinyanja | |
Chichewa, Chinyanja | |
Native to | Malawi |
Region | Southeast Africa |
Ethnicity | Chewa |
Native speakers | 2 million (2020) |
Language family | Niger–Congo?
|
Writing system | Latin (Chewa alphabet) Mwangwego Chewa Braille |
Official status | |
Official language in | Malawi |
Recognised minority language in | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-1 | ny |
ISO 639-2 | nya |
ISO 639-3 | nya |
Glottolog | nyan1308 |
Guthrie code | N.30 (N.31, N.121) |
Linguasphere | 99-AUS-xaa – xag |
Vigaŵa ivyo chiyowoyero cha Chichewa ndicho chikayowoyeka chomene. Chizungu chikulongora kuti chiyowoyero cha Chichewa ndicho ntchilankhulo cha boma. | |
Person | Mchewa |
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People | Achewa |
Language | Chichewa |
Chichewa chili mu gulu limoza la viyowoyero (Guthrie Zone N) na chiTumbuka, Sena na Nsenga.
Kwamba kale, ŵanthu ŵa mu Malawi ŵakuyowoya viyowoyero vya Chichewa na ChiTumbuka. Ndipouli, ciyowoyero ca Tumbuka cikasuzgika comene mu nyengo ya muwuso wa Pulezidenti Hastings Kamuzu Banda, cifukwa mu 1968 cifukwa ca fundo yake yakuti paŵe mtundu umoza na ciyowoyero cimoza, ciyowoyero ici cikaleka kuŵa ca boma mu Malawi. Ntheura, chiyowoyero cha Tumbuka chikafumiskika mu masukulu, pa wayilesi, na mu manyuzipepara. Mu 1994, apo boma la Tumbuka likamba kulamulira na vipani vinandi, ŵakambaso kutegherezga maungano gha pa wayilesi, kweni mabuku na mabuku ghanyake ghakaŵa ghachoko.
Chichewa ndicho chikuyowoyeka chomene mu Malaŵi. Kweniso likuyowoyeka mu chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia, kweniso ku Mozambique, chomenechomene mu vigaŵa vya Tete na Niassa. Chikaŵa chiyowoyero chimoza mwa viyowoyero 55 ivyo vikaŵa mu ndege ya Voyager.
Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Chewa ŵakaŵa ŵa fuko la Maravi, awo ŵakakhalanga ku chigaŵa cha kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Zambia na kumpoto kwa Mozambique m'paka kumwera kwa Mlonga wa Zambezi kwambira m'ma 1500 panji kumasinda.
Zina lakuti "Chewa" (mu chiyowoyero cha Chévas) likalembeka kakwamba na António Gamitto, uyo mu 1831, apo wakaŵa na vyaka 26, wakasankhika kuŵa wachiŵiri kwa mulara wa gulu la ŵanthu awo ŵakaluta ku nkhondo kufuma ku Tete kuluta ku nyumba ya themba Kazembe ku Zambia. Wakenda mu caru ca Themba Undi kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa mapiri gha Dzalanyama, kujumpha mu malo agho sono ni Malawi na kunjira mu Zambia. Pamanyuma, wakalemba nkhani yinyake iyo yikaŵa na nkhani za ŵanthu na viyowoyero. Gamitto wakati ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi panji Maravi (Maraves) ŵakaŵa ŵanthu awo ŵakalongozgekanga na Themba Undi kumwera kwa mlonga wa Chambwe (pafupi na mphaka ya pakati pa Mozambique na Zambia).
Mulendo munyake wa ku Germany zina lake Sigismund Koelle, uyo wakacitanga mulimo wake mu Sierra Leone, ku West Africa, wakafumba ŵanthu 160 awo ŵakaŵa ŵazga ndipo wakalemba mazgu gha mu viyowoyero vyawo. Mu 1854, wakalemba buku la Polyglotta Africana. Pakati pa ŵazga ŵanyake pakaŵa Mateke, uyo wakayowoyanga chiyowoyero icho wakuchichema kuti "Maravi". Chiyowoyero cha Mateke ntchiyowoyero chakwambilira cha Chiyanja, kweni chikuyowoyeka kumwera. Mwaciyerezgero, mazgu ghakuti zaka ziwiri "vyaka viŵiri" ghakaŵa dzaka dziŵiri mu kayowoyero ka Mateke, apo kwa Salimini, uyo wakaŵa muphaci wa Johannes Rebmann, uyo wakafuma ku Lilongwe, ghakaŵa bzaka bziŵiri. Mazuŵa ghano napo mazgu agha ghakusangika mu chiyowoyero chinyake.
Padera pa mazgu ghachoko waka agho ghakalembeka na Gamitto na Koelle, mazgu ghakwambilira gha Chichewa ghakalembeka na Johannes Rebmann mu buku lake la Dictionary of the Kiniassa Language, ilo likalembeka mu 1853. Rebmann wakaŵa mishonale ndipo wakakhalanga kufupi na Mombasa, mu caru ca Kenya. Wakasanga fundo iyi kwa muzga wa ku Malawi, uyo wakamanyikwanga na zina la Ciswahili lakuti Salimini. Salimini, uyo wakafuma ku Mphande, mu chigaŵa cha Lilongwe, nayo wakawona mphambano pakati pa chiyowoyero chake, icho wakachichemanga Kikamtunda, "chiyowoyero cha ku mapiri", na chiyowoyero cha Kimaravi icho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga kumwera.
Buku lakwamba lakuti A Grammar of the Chinyanja language as spoken at Lake Nyasa, ilo lili na mazgu gha Chingelezi na Chingelezi, likalembeka na Alexander Riddel mu 1880. Mu viyowoyero vinyake vyakwambilira muli mazgu gha Chichinyanja agho George Henry (1891) na M.E. Woodward's A vocabulary of English?? Chinyanja and Chinyanja?? English: as spoken at Likoma, Lake Nyasa (1895). William Percival Johnson ndiyo wakang'anamura Baibolo lose mu chiyowoyero cha Nyanja cha pa Likoma Island, ndipo wakalilemba mu 1912. Baibolo linyake la Buku Lopatulika ndilo Mau a Mulungu likalembeka mu chiyowoyero cha ku Central Region cha m'ma 1900-1922 na ŵamishonale ŵa Dutch Reformed Mission na Church of Scotland. Mu 2016, buku ili likang'anamulika na kunozgaso.
Chiyowoyero chinyake chakwambilira icho ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga chikaŵa chiyowoyero cha Kasungu. Buku ili ndilo likaŵa lakwamba kulembeka na munthu wa ku America, ndipo likalembeka pamoza na Hastings Kamuzu Banda, uyo wakaŵa mulongozgi wakwamba wa charu cha Malawi. Ciyowoyero ici nchakuzirwa comene cifukwa ndico cikaŵa cakwamba kulongora umo mazgu ghakupambanirana. Mabuku gha mazuŵa ghano ghakulongosora umo chichewa chikugwilira ntchito nga ni Mtenje (1986), Kanerva (1990), Mchombo (2004) na Downing & Mtenje (2017).
Mu vyaka vyasonosono apa, chiyowoyero ichi chasintha chomene, ndipo chiyowoyero cha Chichewa icho ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya mu mizi na chiyowoyero cha ŵanthu awo ŵakukhala mu matawuni vikupambana.
Chichewa chili na mazgu ghankhondi: a, ɛ, i, ɔ, u. Nyengo zinyake tikuwona mavowel ghatali panji ghaŵiri, nga ni áákúlu 'likuru' (class 2), kufúula 'kuchemerezga.' Para lizgu lafika kuumaliro wa sentesi, lizgu lakwamba lakwamba likuŵa litali, kupaturako mazina na mazgu gha Cchewa yayi, nga ni Muthárika panji ófesi, apo lizgu lakwamba lakwamba likuŵa lifupi. Mazgu ghakuti "u" panji "i" agho ghazunulika mu mazgu nga ni láputopu 'laptop' panji íntaneti 'internet' ghakuŵa ghambura kuzunulika.
Front | Central | Back | |
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Close | i | u | |
Open-mid | ɛ | ɔ | |
Open | a |
Vilembo vya Chewa vingaŵa vyakupambanapambana (pakuti vikwendera pamanyuma pa vowel), labialised (pakuti vikwendera pamanyuma pa w), panji palatalised (pakuti vikwendera pamanyuma pa y):
Mu chiyowoyero ichi, pa malo gha bya pakaŵa bza, pa malo gha gya pakaŵa ja, ndipo pa sya pakaŵa sha.
Nthowa yinyake iyo tikuyowoyera mazgu agha njakuti:
Para munthu wakuyowoya mazgu ghakupambanapambana, mazgu agha ghakung'anamulika kuti [f] na [s].
Ntheura, mazgu agho ghangaŵa pa tabuleti ghangaŵa nga ni agha:
Labial | Dental | Velar/Palatal | Glottal | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | palatalised | labialised | plain | palatalised | labialised | plain | labialised | |||
Nasal | ma /m/ | mya /mʲ/ | mwa /mʷ/ | na /n/ | nya /nʲ/ | ng'a /ŋ/ | ng'wa /ŋʷ/ | |||
Stop | voiceless | pa /p/ | pya /pʲ/ | pwa /pʷ/ | ta /t/ | tya /tʲ/ | twa /tʷ/ | ka /k/ | kwa /kʷ/ | |
aspirated | pha /pʰ/ | phwa /pʷʰ/ | tha /tʰ/ | thya /tʲʰ/ | thwa /tʷʰ/ | kha /kʰ/ | khwa /kʷʰ/ | |||
Pre-nasalized aspirated | mpha /ᵐpʰ/ | mphwa /ᵐpʷʰ/ | ntha /ⁿtʰ/ | nthya /ⁿtʲʰ/ | nthwa /ⁿtʷʰ/ | nkha /ᵑkʰ/ | nkhwa /ᵑkʷʰ/ | |||
voiced | ba /ɓ/ | bwa /ɓʷ/ | da /ɗ/ | dya /ɗʲ/ | dwa /ɗʷ/ | ga /ɡ/ | gwa /ɡʷ/ | |||
Pre-nasalized voiced | mba /ᵐb/ | mbwa /ᵐbʷ/ | nda /ⁿd/ | ndya /ⁿdʲ/ | ndwa /ⁿdʷ/ | nga /ᵑɡ/ | ngwa /ᵑɡʷ/ | |||
Affricate | voiceless | psa /pʃʲ/ | tsa /t͡s/ | tswa /t͡sʷ/ | cha /t͡ʃ/ | |||||
aspirated | tcha /t͡ʃʰ/ | |||||||||
Pre-nasalized aspirated | mpsa /ᵐpsʲ/ | ntcha /ⁿt͡ʃʰ/ | ||||||||
voiced | bza /bʒʲ/ | dza /d͡z/ | (dzwe) /d͡zʷ/ | ja /d͡ʒ/ | ||||||
Pre-nasalized voiced | mbza /ᵐbzʲ/ | (ndza) /ⁿd͡z/ | nja /ⁿd͡ʒ/ | |||||||
Fricative | voiceless | fa /f/ | (fya) /fʲ/ | fwa /fʷ/ | sa /s/ | sha /ʃ/ | swa /sʷ/ | (ha) /h/ | ||
Pre-nasalized | mfa /ᶬf/ | nsa /ⁿs/ | nswa /ⁿsʷ/ | |||||||
voiced | va /v/ | (vya) /vʲ/ | vwa /vʷ/ | za /z/ | (zya) /zʲ~ʒ/ | zwa /zʷ/ | ||||
Pre-nasalized voiced | mva /ᶬv/ | nza /ⁿz/ | nzwa /ⁿzʷ/ | |||||||
Approximant | (ŵa) /β/ | wa /w/ | la/ra /ɽ/ | lwa/rwa /ɽʷ/ | ya /j/ |
Kulemba uko ŵakugwiliskira nchito apa nkhwa mu 1973 ndipo ndiko ŵakugwiliskira nchito comene mu Malaŵi mazuŵa ghano.
Notes on the consonants
Nga umo viliri na viyowoyero vinyake vinandi vya ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Bantu, chiyowoyero cha Chichewa nacho chili na mazgu ghakupambanapambana. Mu chiyowoyero ichi, mazgu ghakugwiliskira nchito nthowa zakupambanapambana. Cakwamba, lizgu lililose lili na mazgu ghake.
Kanandi lizgu likuŵa na lizgu limoza pera la mazgu ghapachanya (kanandi pa lizgu limoza pa mazina ghatatu ghaumaliro), panji palije lizgu nanga ndimoza. Ndipouli, mazgu ghakupambanapambana ghangaŵa na mazgu ghakupambanapambana, nga ni:
Cinthu caciŵiri cakuzirwa ico mazgu agha ghakung'anamura ni lizgu lakuyowoya. Nyengo yiliyose ya lizgu ili yili na mazgu ghake. Mwaciyelezgero, lizgu lakuti sono (present habitual) lili na mazgu ghapachanya pa lizgu lakwamba na laumaliro, apo lizgu linyake lili na mazgu ghachoko.
Kweni mazgu ghakuti recent past continuous na present continuous, ghakuŵa na mazgu gha pa syllable yacitatu:
Kweniso mazgu ghangavumbura usange lizgu likugwira ntchito mu chigaŵa chikuru panji mu chigaŵa chakulondezgapo.
Cinthu cacitatu ico ŵanthu ŵakucita na mazgu gha Chewa nkhusambizga mazgu. Mwaciyelezgero, para mazgu ghafuma pakati pa sentesi, mazgu gha uyo wakuyowoya ghakukwera. Nyengo zinyake tikupulika mazgu ghanyake, nga ni mazgu agho ghakwera panji kukhira paumaliro wa fumbo lakuti enya panji yayi.
Vizunuli vya Chichewa vili kugaŵika mu vigaŵa vinandi, ndipo ŵanthu ŵa ku Malawi ŵakuvizunura kuti "Mu-A-", kweni ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu ŵakuvizunura kuti "1/2". Kanandi mazgu agha ghakupangika mu vigaŵa viŵiri. Ndipouli, mazgu ghakupambanapambana nagho ghangaŵapo, comenecomene na mazgu agho ŵali kuwombora. Mwaciyelezgero, lizgu lakuti bánki 'banki,' ilo likung'anamura mazgu ghakupambanapambana gha kilasi 9, lili na mabánki (kalasi 6).
Para tikupeleka mazina ku chigaŵa chinyake, pakwamba tikugwiliskira ntchito chigaŵa chakwamba. Para palije lizgu lakwamba, panji para lizgu lakwamba ndakubudika, mazgu agho ghali mu lizgu lakwamba (onani pasi apa) ghakovwira kuti munthu wamanye zina la lizgu. Mwaciyelezgero, mazgu ghakuti katúndu 'vinthu' ghali mu gulu la 1, cifukwa ghali na lizgu lakuti uyu 'ici.'
Zina mwa mazina agha ghali mu gulu limoza pera, nga ni tomáto 'tomato(es)'(class 1), mowa 'beer' (class 3), malayá'shirt(s)'(class 6), udzudzú'mosquito(es)'(class 14), ndipo ghakusintha yayi pakati pa umoza na unandi. Nangauli vili nthena, kweni mazgu agha ghangaŵapo: tomáto muwíri 'thomato ziŵiri', mowa uwíri 'biyere ziŵiri', malayá amódzi'shati limoza', udzudzú umódzi 'nyerere yimoza.'
Chigaŵa cha 11 (Lu-) chilipo yayi mu Chichewa. Mazgu nga ni lumo 'nkhwazi' na lusó 'nkhongono' ghakuwoneka kuti ghali mu gulu la 5/6 (Li-Ma-) ndipo ghakukolerana na gulu ili.
Infinitive class:
Locative classes:
Vizunuli, vimanyikwiro, na viyowoyero vinyake vikwenera kukolerana na mazina gha Chichewa. Ivi vikucitika na vilembo vyakwambilira, nga ni:
Nyengo zinandi pakuyowoya za ŵalara, ŵakuyowoya za gulu laciŵiri. Kuyana na Corbett na Mtenje, lizgu lakuti bambo 'baba,' nangauli ndakuyana waka na lizgu linyake, kweni likuyana waka na lizgu linyake.
Vilembo vyakupambanapambana ivi vili pa tabuleti iyi:
noun | English | this | that | pron | subj | object | num | rem | of | of+vb | other | adj | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | mwaná | child | uyu | uyo | yé- | a- | mú/ḿ- | m/(mu)- | uja | wá | wó- | wína | wám- |
2 | aná | children | awa | awo | ó- | a- | -á/wá- | a- | aja | á | ó- | éna | áa- |
3 | mutú | head | uwu | uwo | wó- | u- | -ú- | u- | uja | wá | wó- | wína | wau- |
4 | mitú | heads | iyi | iyo | yó- | i- | -í/yí- | i- | ija | yá | yó- | ína | yái- |
5 | díso | eye | ili | ilo | ló- | li- | -lí- | li- | lija | lá | ló- | lína | láli- |
6 | masó | eyes | awa | awo | ó- | a- | -wá- | a- | aja | á | ó- | éna | áa- |
7 | chaká | year | ichi | icho | chó- | chi- | -chí- | chi- | chija | chá | chó- | chína | cháchi- |
8 | zaká | years | izi | izo | zó- | zi- | -zí- | zi- | zija | zá | zó- | zína | zázi- |
9 | nyumbá | house | iyi | iyo | yó- | i- | -í/yí- | i- | ija | yá | yó- | ína | yái- |
10 | nyumbá | houses | izi | izo | zó- | zi- | -zí- | zi- | zija | zá | zó- | zína | zázi- |
12 | kamwaná | baby | aka | ako | kó- | ka- | -ká- | ka- | kaja | ká | kó- | kéna | káka- |
13 | tianá | babies | iti | ito | tó- | ti- | -tí- | ti- | tija | tá | tó- | tína | táti- |
14 | utá | bow | uwu | uwo | wó- | u- | -ú- | u- | uja | wá | wó- | wína | wáu- |
15 | kugúla | buying | uku | uko | kó- | ku- | -kú- | ku- | kuja | kwá | kó- | kwína | kwáku- |
16 | pansí | underneath | apa | apo | pó- | pa- | -po | pa- | paja | pá | pó- | péna | pápa- |
17 | kutsogoló | in front | uku | uko | kó- | ku- | -ko | ku- | kuja | kwá | kó- | kwína | kwáku- |
18 | mkatí | inside | umu | umo | mó- | m/mu- | -mo | m/mu- | muja | mwá | mó- | mwína | mwám'- |
Pali mazina 17 ghakupambanapambana, kweni pakuti ghanyake ghali na mazina ghakupambanapambana, pali mazina 12 pera.
Mu viyelezgero ivyo vili pasi apa, mazgu gha viyowoyero ivi ghakulongosoreka na mazina gha viyowoyero vya mu kilasi 1 na 2.
Kanandi ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito vilembo ivi.
Para mazgu agha ghalembeka pambere mazgu ghanyake ghandalembeke, panji para ghalembeka pambere mazgu ghanyake ghandambe kulembeka, ghakuŵa nga ni mazgu ghakuti "iyo" na "iwo".
Pa visambizgo vinyake padera pa visambizgo 1 na 2, mazgu ghakulongosora ghakugwiliskirika nchito m'malo mwa zina la munthu, nga ni ichi panji icho. Kweni pali viyowoyero vinyake ivyo vili na lizgu lakuti ná- na ndi- nga ni nácho na ndichó.
Viyelezgelo vitatu vya zina lakuti yénse 'wose', yékha 'yekha', yémwe 'iyo mweneyuyo' (panji 'uyo') vili na viyelezgelo vyakuyana waka vyakuti yé- na (w) ó-, pa nyengo iyi ni viyelezgelo:
Mu magulu ghaŵiri na ghankhondi na limoza, ó- kanandi yikuzgoka wó- (nga ni wónse kwa ónse na vinyake).
Lizgu lakuti álíyensé 'wose' lili kufuma ku lizgu lakuti áli 'uyo waliko' na lakuti yénse 'wose.' Vigaŵa vyose viŵiri vya lizgu ili vili na mazgu ghakuyana:
Nga umo vikuŵira na viyowoyero vinyake vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Bantu, viyowoyero vyose vya Chichewa vili na mazgu ghakwamba agho ghakukolerana na chiŵaro cha chiŵaro. Mu Chichewa cha mazuŵa ghano, chiŵiya chakwamba cha chiŵiya 2 (kale ŵa-) chazgoka a-, icho chikuyana waka na chiŵiya chakwamba cha chiŵiya 1:
Nyengo yakufikapo (wapita 'wakaluta', apita 'ŵaluta') yili na vigaŵa vyakupambana na nyengo zinyake (wonani pasi apa).
Lizgu lakuti améne 'uyo' na lizgu lakuti demonstrative améneyo ghakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu ghakuyana waka nga ni verebu:
Mu Chichewa, ntchakukhumbikwa yayi kugwiliskira ntchito chigaŵa chakwamba. Para lizgu ili lalembeka, likuŵa panthazi pa lizgu la chiyowoyero, ndipo likuyana na lizgu ilo likuyowoyeka:
The object prefix of classes 16, 17, and 18 is usually replaced by a suffix: ndaonámo 'I have seen inside it'.
The same prefix with verbs with the applicative suffix -ira represents the indirect object, e.g. ndamúlembera 'I have written to him'.
Numeral concords are used with numbers -módzi 'one', -wíri 'two', -tátu 'three', -náyi 'four', -sanu 'five', and the words -ngáti? 'how many', -ngápo 'several':
Chiŵiya chakwamba m- chikuzgoka mu- pambere -wiri: tomáto muwíri'matamati ghaŵiri.'
Nambara ya khúmi 'kumi' yikukolerana yayi.
Viyezgo vya kujilongora vya uja 'uyo mukumumanya' na uno 'uyo tili mu' vikuyana waka na viyezgo vya u- na a- mu kilasi 1 na 2. Pa vifukwa vinyake, cigaŵa ca 1 uno nchacilendo:
Mazgu gheneagha w- (ghakufuma ku u-) na a-, pamoza na vowel a, ghakupangiska kuti chiŵiya icho chikwimira chiŵiya chinyake chiŵe mu nyengo yakufikapo. Mu lizgu la unandi, vilembo viŵiri ivi vikusazgikana na kuzgoka lizgu limoza:
The concords w- (derived from u-) and a- are also found in the word á 'of':
The same concords are used in possessive adjectives -ánga 'my', -áko 'your', -áke 'his/her/its/their', -áthu 'our', -ánu 'your (plural or respectful singular), -áwo 'their'/'his/her' (respectful):
-áwo 'their' is used only of people (-áke is used for things).
Wá 'of' can be combined with nouns or adverbs to make adjectives:
In the same way wá 'of' combines with the ku- of the infinitive to make verbal adjectives. Wá + ku- usually shortens to wó-, except where the verb root is monosyllabic:
The same w- and a- concords are found with the words -ína 'other' and -ení-éní 'real'. In combination with these words the plural concord a- is converted to e-:
Certain adjectives (-kúlu 'big', -ng'óno 'small'; -(a)múna 'male', -kázi 'female'; -táli 'long', 'tall', -fúpi 'short'; -wisi 'fresh') have a double prefix, combining the possessive concord (wá-) and the number concord (m- or mw-):
Early dictionaries, such as those of Rebmann, and of Scott and Hetherwick, show that formerly the number of concords was greater. The following changes have taken place:
In addition, classes 4 and 9, and classes 15 and 17 have identical concords, so the total number of concord sets (singular and plural) is now twelve.
Mu Chichewa, mazgu gha nyengo ghakupambana mu nthowa ziŵiri. Nyengo zinyake mazgu ghaŵiri ghakuyana waka ndipo ghakupambana waka na mazgu ghanyake. Mu viyelezgero vyakulondezgapo, chikhwangwani cha nyengo chili pasi:
One tense has no tense-marker:
Para munthu wakuyowoya mazgu gha nyengo, wangasazgirako mazgu ghanyake agho ghakumanyikwa na zina lakuti 'aspect-markers.' Ni -má- 'nyengozose, kanandi' -ká- 'kwenda na', -dzá 'kwiza na' panji 'kunthazi,' na -ngo- 'yekha,' 'pamoza pera.' Viŵikilo ivi vingagwiliskikaso nchito pavyekha, nga ni vilembo vya nyengo (yaniskani -ma- na -dza- mu ndondomeko ya nyengo iyo yili pacanya apa). Mwaciyelezgero:
Compound tenses, such as the following, are also found in Chichewa:
Viyezgo vya Chichewa (kupaturako mazgu ghakuchiska na mazgu ghambura kumara) vikwamba na lizgu ilo likuyana na lizgu ilo likuyowoyeka. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya maluso gha vilembo ŵakuchema chilembo ichi kuti'subject-marker'.
The subject-marker can be:
An example of a locative subject-marker is:
Both the 2nd and the 3rd person plural pronouns and subject-markers are used respectfully to refer to a single person:
Except in the perfect tense, the 3rd person subject marker when used of people is the same whether singular or plural. So in the present tense the 3rd person subject-marker is a-:
But in the perfect tense wa- (singular) contrasts with a- (plural or respectful):
When the subject is a noun not in class 1, the appropriate class prefix is used even if referring to a person:
An object-marker can also optionally be added to the verb; if one is added it goes immediately before the verb-stem. The 2nd person plural adds -ni after the verb:
The object-marker can be:
When used with a toneless verb tense such as the perfect, the object-marker has a high tone, but in some tenses such as the present habitual, the tone is lost:
With the imperative or subjunctive, the tone of the object-marker goes on the syllable following it, and the imperative ending changes to -e:
Chichewa chili na viyowoyero vinandi, ndipo vinyake vikupambana na viyowoyero vinyake vya ku Europe. Para munthu wakuyowoya lizgu la ciyowoyero cinyake, wakuŵa na vilembo vyakwambilira nga ni -na- na -ku-, ndipo para wakuyowoya lizgu linyake wakuŵa na vilembo vyakwambilira.
Pali nyengo zinkhondi (zamunthazi, zamunthazi, zamunthazi, zamunthazi, na zamunthazi). Mphambano pakati pa nyengo zakufupi na zakutali njakwenelera yayi. Nyengo zakutali zikugwiliskirika nchito yayi pa vinthu ivyo vikacitika muhanya uno panji usiku wamara, kweni nyengo zakufupi zingagwiriskirika nchito pa vinthu ivyo vikacitika kumasinda panji kunthazi:
Pali mphambano yinyake pakati pa vinthu viwemi na viheni. Vinthu viŵiri ivi vikulongora kuti ivyo vikacitika vikaŵa na umaliro uwo ulipo. Nyengo ziŵiri izo zajumpha zikulongora kuti cigaŵa ico cacitika cazgoka:
Recent time (today):
Remote time (yesterday or earlier):
When used in narrating a series of events, however, these implications are somewhat relaxed: the Remote Perfect is used for narrating earlier events, and the Recent Past for narrating events of today.
Another important distinction in Chewa is between perfective and imperfective aspect. Imperfective tenses are used for situations, events which occur regularly, or events which are temporarily in progress:
In the present tense only, there is a further distinction between habitual and progressive:
One future tense not found in European languages is the -ká- future, which 'might presuppose an unspoken conditional clause':
There are also various subjunctive and potential mood tenses, such as:
Negative tenses, if they are main verbs, are made with the prefix sí-. They differ in intonation from the positive tenses. The negative of the -ná- tense has the ending -e instead of -a:
Tenses which mean 'will not' or 'have not yet' have a single tone on the penultimate syllable:
Infinitives, participial verbs, and the subjunctive make their negative with -sa-, which is added after the subject-prefix instead of before it. They similarly have a single tone on the penultimate syllable:
The tenses used in certain kinds of dependent clauses (such as relative clauses and some types of temporal clauses) differ from those used in main clauses. Dependent verbs often have a tone on the first syllable. Sometimes this change of tone alone is sufficient to show that the verb is being used in a dependent clause. Compare for example:
Other commonly used dependent tenses are the following:
There is also a series of tenses using a toneless -ka- meaning 'when' of 'if', for example:
After the verb stem one or more extensions may be added. The extensions modify the meaning of the verb, for example:
The extensions -ul-/-ol- and its intransitive form -uk-/-ok- are called 'reversive'. They give meanings such as 'open', 'undo', 'unstick', 'uncover':
Most extensions, apart from the reciprocal -an- 'one another', have two possible forms, e.g. -ir-/-er-, -idw-/-edw-, -its-/-ets-, -iz-/-ez-, -ul-/-ol-, -uk-/-ok-. The forms with i and u are used when the verb stem has a, i, or u. u can also follow e:
The forms with e are used if the verb stem is monosyllabic or has an e or o in it:
Extensions with o are used only with a monosyllabic stem or one with o:
The extension -its-, -ets- with a low tone is causative, but when it has a high tone it is intensive. The high tone is heard on the final syllable of the verb:
The applicative -ir-, -er- can also sometimes be intensive, in which case it has a high tone:
Verbs with -ik-, -ek-, -uk-, -ok- when they have a stative or intransitive meaning also usually have a high tone:
However, there are some low-toned exceptions such as on-ek-a 'seem' or nyam-uk-a 'set off'.
The following have written published stories, novels, or plays in the Chewa language:
Town Nyanja | |
---|---|
Native to | Zambia |
Region | Lusaka |
Language family | Nyanja-based |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | None (mis ) |
Glottolog | None |
Guthrie code | none |
An urban variety of Nyanja, sometimes called Town Nyanja, is the lingua franca of the Zambian capital Lusaka and is widely spoken as a second language throughout Zambia. This is a distinctive Nyanja dialect with some features of Nsenga, although the language also incorporates large numbers of English-derived words, as well as showing influence from other Zambian languages such as Bemba. Town Nyanja has no official status, and the presence of large numbers of loanwords and colloquial expressions has given rise to the misconception that it is an unstructured mixture of languages or a form of slang.
The fact that the standard Nyanja used in schools differs dramatically from the variety actually spoken in Lusaka has been identified as a barrier to the acquisition of literacy among Zambian children.
The concords in Town Nyanja differ from those in Chichewa described above. For example, classes 5 and 6 both have the concord ya- instead of la- and a-; class 8 has va- instead of za-; and 13 has twa- instead of ta-. In addition, the subject and object marker for "I" is ni- rather than ndi-, and that for "they" is βa- (spelled "ba-") rather than a-.
English | Chewa (Malawi) | Town Nyanja (Lusaka) |
---|---|---|
How are you? | Muli bwanji? | Muli bwanji? |
I'm fine | Ndili bwino | Nili bwino / Nili mushe |
Thank you | Zikomo | Zikomo |
Yes | Inde | Ee |
No | Iyayi/Ayi | Iyayi |
What's your name? | Dzina lanu ndani? | Zina yanu ndimwe bandani? |
My name is... | Dzina langa ndine... | Zina yanga ndine... |
How many children do you have? | Muli ndi ana angati? | Muli na bana bangati? ('b' = [ŵ]) |
I have two children | Ndili ndi ana awiri | Nili na bana babili |
I want... | Ndikufuna... | Nifuna... |
Food | Chakudya | Vakudya |
Water | Madzi | Manzi |
How much is it? | Ndi zingati? | Ni zingati? |
See you tomorrow | Tionana mawa | Tizaonana mailo |
I love you | Ndimakukonda | Nikukonda |
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