First Philippine Republic

It was formally established with Emilio Aguinaldo as president. It maintained governance until April 1, 1901.

Philippine Republic República Filipina (Spanish) Republika ng Pilipinas (Tagalog)
1899–1901
Flag Emblem
Motto: Libertad, Justicia, y Igualidad (English: "Liberty, Justice, and Equality")[citation needed]
Anthem: Marcha Nacional Filipina (English: "Philippine National March")
Territory controlled by the Philippine Republic, most of which it occupied except Manila and parts of Mindanao.
Status	Unrecognized state
Capital	Malolos
Largest city	Manila (until February 5, 1899)
Official languages	Spanish
Religion	Secular state Majority: Roman Catholicism Minority: Folk religion, Sunni Islam
Demonym(s)	Filipino
Government	1899: Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic under a military dictatorship 1899–1901: Unitary parliamentary republic with an executive presidency
President
• 1899–1901	Emilio Aguinaldo (first)
• 1901–1902	Miguel Malvar (last; unofficial)
Prime Minister
• 1899	Apolinario Mabini (first)
• 1899	Pedro Paterno (last)
Legislature	National Assembly
Historical era	Philippine–American War
• Established	January 23, 1899
• Dissolved	April 1, 1901
Area
1898[better source needed]	298,719 km2 (115,336 sq mi)
Population
• 1898	7,832,719
Currency	Peso
Preceded by Succeeded by Captaincy General of the Philippines Revolutionary Government Insular Government of the Philippine Islands Tagalog Republic

Following the American victory at the Battle of Manila Bay, Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines, issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898, and proclaimed successive revolutionary Philippine governments on June 18 and 23 of that year.

In December 1898, Spain and the United States signed the 1898 Treaty of Paris, ending the Spanish–American war. As part of the treaty, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States. The treaty was not formally proclaimed until April 11, 1899, when mutual ratifications were exchanged. In the meantime, on January 23, 1899, the Malolos Constitution establishing the First Philippine Republic had been proclaimed and, on February 4, 1899, fighting had erupted in Manila between American and Filipino forces in what developed into the Philippine–American War. Aguinaldo was captured by the American forces on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela, He declared allegiance to the U.S. on April 19, 1901, effectively ending the Philippine Republic.

The First Philippine Republic is sometimes characterized as the first proper constitutional republic in Asia, although there were several Asian republics predating it – for example, the Mahajanapadas of ancient India, the Lanfang Republic, the Republic of Formosa, or the Republic of Ezo. Aguinaldo himself had led a number of governments prior to Malolos, like those established at Tejeros and Biak-na-Bato which both styled themselves República de Filipinas ("Republic of the Philippines"). Unlike the founding documents of those governments, however, the Malolos Constitution was duly approved by a partially elected congress and called for a true representative democracy.

In 1896, the Philippine Revolution began against Spanish colonial rule. In 1897, Philippine forces led by Aguinaldo signed a ceasefire with the Spanish authorities and Aguinaldo and other leaders went into exile in Hong Kong. In April 1898, the Spanish–American War broke out. The U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron, then in Hong Kong, sailed to the Philippines to engage the Spanish naval forces. On May 1, 1898, the U.S. Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy in the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines on May 24 and, on that date, proclaimed a dictatorial government (formally established by decree on June 18). On June 12, he issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain at his ancestral home in Cavite. He established a revolutionary government on June 23, under which the partly-elected and partly-appointed Malolos Congress convened on September 15 to write a constitution.

On December 10, 1898, the 1898 Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the Spanish–American War and transferring the Philippines from Spain to the United States.

The constitution written by the Malolos Congress was proclaimed on January 22, 1899, creating what is known today as the First Philippine Republic, with Aguinaldo as its president. The constitution was approved by delegates to the Malolos Congress on January 20, 1899, and sanctioned by Aguinaldo the next day. The convention had earlier elected Aguinaldo president on January 1, 1899, leading to his inauguration on January 23. Parts of the constitution gave Aguinaldo the power to rule by decree. The constitution was titled "Constitución política", and was written in Spanish.

Philippine–American War

When the First Philippine Republic was constituted on January 22, 1899, in Malolos, that municipality became the seat of government of the Philippine Republic, and was serving as such when hostilities erupted between U.S. and Filipino forces in the Second Battle of Manila on February 4. On February 4, 1899, armed conflict erupted in Manila between Philippine Republic forces and American forces occupying the city subsequent to the conclusion of the Spanish–American War. That day President Aguinaldo issued a proclamation ordering and commanding that "peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war". The fighting quickly escalated into the Second Battle of Manila, with Philippine Republic forces being driven out of the city.

American forces pushing north from Manila after the outbreak of fighting captured Caloocan on February 10. On March 29, as American forces threatened Malolos, the seat of government moved to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. On March 31, American forces captured Malolos, the initial seat of the Philippine Republic government, which had been gutted by fires set by withdrawing Philippine Republic forces. Emilio Aguinaldo and the core of the revolutionary government had by then moved to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Peace negotiations with the American Schurman Commission during a brief ceasefire in April–May 1899 failed, and San Isidro fell to American forces on May 16. The Philippine Republic core government had moved by then to Bamban, Tarlac, and subsequently moved to Tarlac town. Aguinaldo's party had already left Tarlac, the last capital of the Philippine Republic, by the time American troops occupied it on November 13.

American forces captured Calumpit, Bulacan on April 27 and, moving north, captured Apalit, Pampanga with little opposition on May 4 and San Fernando, Pampanga on May 5. This forced the seat of government to be shifted according to the demands of the military situation.

In October 1899, American forces were in San Fernando, Pampanga and the Philippine Republic was headquartered not far north of there, in Angeles City. On October 12, an American offensive to the north forced the Philippine Republic to relocate its headquarters in November to Tarlac, and then to Bayambang, Pangasinan. On November 13, under pressure by American forces, Aguinaldo and a party departed Bayambang by rail for Calasiao, from where they immediately proceeded eastwards to Santa Barbaraa in order to evade pursuing American forces. There, they joined a force of some 1200 armed men led by General Gregorio del Pilar.

Aguinaldo had decided in aa November 13 conference in Bayambang to disperse his army and begin guerrilla war. From that point on, distance and the localistic nature of the fighting prevented him from exercising a strong influence on revolutionary or military operations. Recognizing that American troops blocked his escape east, he turned north and west on November 15, crossing the mountains into La Union province. Aguinaldo's party eluded pursuing American forces, passing through Tirad Pass near Sagada, Mountain Province where the Battle of Tirad Pass was fought on December 2 as a rear guard action to delay the American advance and ensure his escape. At the time of the battle, Aguinaldo and his party were encamped in Cervantes, about 10 km south of the pass. After being notified by a rider of the outcome of the battle and the death of del Pilar, Aguinaldo ordered that camp be broken, and departed with his party for Cayan settlement.

Aguinaldo's party, traveling with del Pilar's force, reached Manaoag, Pangasinan on November 15. There, the force was split into vanguard and rear guard elements, with Aguinaldo and del Pilar in the vanguard. The vanguard force overnighted in Tubao, La Union, departed there on November 16, and was in Naguilian, La Union by November 19, where word was received that American forces had taken Santo Tomas and had proceeded to Aringay. Aguinaldo's force arrived in Balaoan, La Union on November 19, pushed on the next day, and arrived at the Tirad Pass, a natural choke point, on November 23. General del Pilar decided to place a blocking force in Tirad Pass to delay pursuing American forces while Aguinaldo's party moved on.

The Battle of Tirad Pass took place on December 2, 1899. 52 men of del Pilar's 60-man force were killed, including del Pilar himself. However, the Filipinos under del Pilar held off the Americans long enough for Aguinaldo's party to escape. Aguinaldo, encamped with his party about 10 km south of the pass in Cervantes, Ilocos Sur, was apprised of the result of the battle by a rider, and moved on. The party reached Banane settlement on December 7, where Aguinaldo paused to consider plans for the future. On December 16, the party departed for Abra to join forces with General Manuel Tinio. The party traveled on foot through a pass at the summit of Mount Polis, and arrived at Ambayuan the next morning. The party pushed on to Banane, pursued closely by American forces. At this point, Aguinaldo's party consisted of one field officer, 11 line officers, and 107 men. The remainder of December 1899 was spent in continuous trek.

The party was at the border of Abra and Cagayan provinces on Aguinaldo's 31st birthday on March 23, 1900. The trek from place to place continued until about May 22, 1900, when Aguinaldo established a new headquarters in Tierra Virgen. On August 27, 1900, after American forces landed at Aparri, Cagayan, Aguinaldo concluded that Tierra Virgan had become untenable as a headquarters and decided to march to Palanan, Isabela. On December 6, 1900, the party reached Dumasari, and arrived in Palanan the following morning.

Aguinaldo remained in Palanan until his capture there by American forces with the aid of the native scouts on March 23, 1901. Following his capture, Aguinaldo announced allegiance to the United States on April 1, 1901, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.

Fighting between the Americans and the remnants of the Philippine Revolutionary Army continued until the surrender of General Miguel Malvar on April 16, 1902.

Presidency

Executive power was exercised by the President, through his cabinet secretaries. The incumbent president of the Revolutionary Republic initially assumed the presidency. Presidents were to be elected by the legislature to terms of four years and to be eligible for reelection.

In addition to his basic powers, the 1899 Constitution assigned the following duties to the presidency:

1. Confer civil and military employment in accordance to the law
2. Appoint Secretaries of Government
3. Direct diplomatic and commercial relations with other countries
4. Ensure the swift and complete administration of justice in the entire national territory
5. Pardon criminal offenders in accordance with the law, subject to the provisions relating to the Secretaries of Government
6. Preside over national solemnities, and welcome accredited envoys and representatives of foreign countries with relations to the Republic

National cabinet

The constitution established a Council of Government (Cabinet), composed of a President and seven Secretaries. The following individuals were appointed to Cabinet positions:

Office	Name	Term
President of the Cabinet	Apolinario Mabini	January 2 – May 7, 1899
	Pedro Paterno	May 7 – November 13, 1899
Secretary of Foreign Affairs	Apolinario Mabini	October 1, 1898 – May 7, 1899
Secretary of the Interior	Teodoro Sandico	January 2 – May 7, 1899
Secretary of Finance	Mariano Trías	January 2 – May 7, 1899
	Hugo Ilagan	May 7 – November 13, 1899
	Severino de las Alas	May 7 – November 13, 1899
Secretary of War and Marine	Baldomero Aguinaldo	July 15, 1898 – May 7, 1899
	Mariano Trías	May 7 – November 13, 1899
Secretary of Justice	Gregorio Araneta	September 2, 1898 – May 7, 1899
Secretary of Welfare	Gracio Gonzaga	January 2 – May 7, 1899
	Felipe Buencamino	May 7 – November 13, 1899
	Maximo Paterno	May 7 – November 13, 1899
Secretary of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce	León María Guerrero	May 7 – November 13, 1899
Notes: Malolos   Angeles   San Isidro   Cabanatuan   Bamban   Tarlac   Bayombong   Bayambang   Lubuagan   Palanan, Isabela