History of the Literature of the Scandinavian North/Part 2/Chapter 5

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THE struggle which in the latter half of the eighteenth century was carried on throughout Europe between free thought and the old orthodoxy, and which finally led to a compromise between the contending parties under the designation of rationalism, also left distinct traces in the Danish religious and philosophical literature of that period. Religion had gotten in a bad way, for after the Reformation every free movement had been suppressed, and, as a consequence, all faith had gradually dwindled into empty formalities or degenerated into a rigorous pietism. Hence, when free thought, which was essentially hostile to Christianity, invaded Denmark, it necessarily caused great fermentation. After so long a servitude the spirits of men seized with eagerness the new, dazzling, though hollow, tenets of the foreign philosophers, and the literature was soon filled with mockery and blasphemy to an extent and in a manner so frivolous that Holberg, although he was himself tolerably liberal in his religious views, and although he had contributed his share toward bringing about this movement, could not have dreamed that only a few decades after his death such liberal ideas should gain admittance among a people whom he had found wrapped in profound slumber when he began his work. One of the most prominent freethinkers was Otto Horrebov (1769-1823), editor of the journal "Jesus og Fornuften," while the most eminent representa​tives of rationalism or rational Christianity were Christian Bastholm 1740-1819) and Tyge Rothe (1731-95), both of whom wrote a number of Christian philosophical works intended for the people. The most zealous champion of orthodoxy was Bishop Nicolai Edinger Balle (1744-1816), who, through his sermons and writings, particularly through his weekly paper, "Bibelen forsvarer sig selv" (the Bible defends itself), attempted with vigorous strokes to repel the attacks that were directed against Christianity.^[1]

In this struggle between the old and the new, between strict orthodoxy and the all pervading rational analysis, the latter soon gained the upper hand. People refused to accept blindly and without criticism the established dogmas, and were determined to understand everything clearly. This general striving for enlightenment put its stamp on the whole period and gave this epoch in Danish literature its name. All matters were considered from a utilitarian standpoint. There was a sober, rational activity in every branch of literature, and there was no exception to the rule. This whole movement had in the main entered Denmark from abroad. Foreign scholars and poets, chiefly German and French, were invited in large numbers, or they came of their own accord, to Denmark to bless the country with the new doctrine. These foreigners, particularly the Germans, were favored in every possible manner by the court-circles at the expense of the Danes, and they soon developed an insolence to a degree that aroused the general indignation of the people and ended in bitter hate and a fierce strife against the foreign influence, especially against the Germans. It was, indeed, fortunate for German literature that matters took this turn, and that the national element thus became able to assert its rights.

​The foreign cosmopolitan ideal in Danish literature was promoted in an independent manner by a small circle of men, who were engaged as teachers in the Sorö academy for nobles. They took the French as models, but sought at the same time, as far as possible, to preserve the national peculiarities. Among them were Jens Kraft and Andreas Schytte, who rendered conspicuous services by the publication of popular philosophical works, and preeminently Jens Sneedorf (1724—64), who, on account of his splendid style, gained the reputation of being Denmark's most classical writer. From 1761-63 he published the popular and very widely circulated weekly journal called "Den patriotiske Tilskuer."^[2]

In general it may be said that periodical literature made marked progress about this time, and became one of the most efficient means of diffusing that "general culture" which all desired, and which so many offered for sale; but only a few of these journals were of any real value. The most able and influential ones were "Minerva" and "den danske Tilskuer." The former began in 1785, and was founded by Pram and Rahbek; the latter was founded in 1791 and edited by Rahbek alone. Both continued through a long series of years—the best evidence that they satisfied the general expectations. Both publishers were exceptionally well fitted for their task; they were untiring in their efforts in gathering interesting and reliable news, and in furnishing their readers with interesting and instructive matter. Among the varied contents of these periodicals, which faithfully recorded the events of the time, there are many things that may still be read with interest, irrespective of the great value of these collections for the history of culture.

Kristen Henriksen Pram (1756-1821) combined vast knowledge with indefatigible activity, and his productiveness in several departments was simply extraordinary. He also essayed poetry, but without achieving anything noteworthy ​in this line. He gained his real importance as a writer for the promotion of popular enlightenment.^[3]

Kund Lyne Rahbek (1760-1830) was one of the most fertile writers of which the Danish literature can boast. His works were for a long time widely read and keenly appreciated. Still, his intellectual gifts were not of a sufficiently high order to enable him to appropriate the new ideas that came with the dawn of the nineteenth century, or in general to keep pace with the march of time. Nevertheless, he possessed intelligence enough to acknowledge the claims of the new era and to abstain from warring with it. His specialty was æsthetics. In addition to his numerous original poetical and critical works he published many translations of similar productions from foreign languages, and superintended the editing of several poets of ancient and more recent times. He interested himself in various ways in behalf of the theatre, and from 1809 to 1830 he was its manager. He also wrote dramas, which were not, however, successful. Rahbek was a most charming man personally, and had therefore hosts of friends. His house, the so-called "Bakkehus" (House on the hill), near Copenhagen, where his gifted, wife, Kamma (Karen Margarethe), who was a celebrated letter-writer, presided as a most amiable hostess, was for a long time the trysting-place of all who were in any manner distinguished for wit and talent.^[4]

In Rasmus Nyerup (1759-1829) Danish literary history found an able and untiring worker. When a poor student he had the good fortune of making the acquaintance of the historian, Suhm, who secured him an appointment in the public libraries, in which he was actively engaged until his death. Among his works in the field of history of literature special mention should be made of his "Bidrag til den danske Digtekunsts Historie" (six volumes), which he published with ​Rahbek, and "Udvalgte danske Viser fra Middelalderen" (Selected Danish ballads from the middle age), in five volumes, which he published together with Rahbek and Abrahamson. Several historical and antiquarian works by this gifted author are also of great value. He also rendered an inestimable service to northern antiquarian research by the fact that the museum was founded chiefly at his instigation.^[5] The above mentioned Hans Werner Frederik Abrahamson (1744-1812), a Slesvig by birth, although he had received a German education, became a most ardent advocate of the Danish language, which, at the military academy, had been completely superseded by the German, as Abrahamson found to his sorrow, and he distinguished himself as a warm and sincere patriot. By numerous dissertations in various periodicals he endeavored to diffuse a knowledge of the history and literature of the North.

As we are now considering the general intellectual movements in the literature at the close of the last century, it may not be out of place to mention two men, who, though poets, still were of chief importance as the representatives of the national agitation and of the liberal ideas that were daily gaining ground. These men are Peter Andreas Heiberg and Malte Konrad Bruun. They both stood on the ground of the French revolution and they took a prominent part in that opposition against the existing institutions, which continued with increasing recklessness, especially after the emancipation of the press effected by Struense in 1770. Heiberg (1758-1841) early made his name known by his satirical songs, and his comedies especially secured him great influence on public opinion. These operettas and comedies obtained an extraordinary success and were even compared with Holberg's comedies, though they are in reality by no means equal to them; but still many of them are very cred​itable performances, especially as delineations of character. In these dramatic works, as also in his satirical novel "Rigsdalersedlens Hændelser" (the adventures of the bank-note), and in many of his songs and other lesser works, Heiberg unsparingly attacks all existing institutions. The government persecuted him inexorably, while the masses loved and honored him, not only on account of his sallies against the nobility and Germanism, but also against injustice. In the year 1799 there appeared a new press law, to which he fell a victim. He was accused of several offences against this law and sentenced to exile. In spite of the popular indignation thus aroused, the sentence was executed, and in 1800 Heiberg had to leave Denmark. He went to France, where he obtained an appointment in the ministry of foreign affairs, and where he remained until his death.^[6]

Molte Bruun (1775-1826) was as combative and reckless as Heiberg, and far more violent. The best known of his scathing pamphlets is his "Aristokraternes Katekismus" (1796). It brought him a lawsuit, but he escaped to Sweden. An ode which he at this time wrote on the occasion of Bernstorfs death appeased the government; the suit was withdrawn and he returned to Denmark. But a few years later his writings again gave offence to the authorities, and only by flight to France did he escape a severe sentence that threatened him. He remained in France until his death, chiefly engaged in geographical work, by which he gained a world-wide fame.^[7]

This age produced a large number of poets, whose works are not, however, as a rule, of very great value. To encourage obscure talents, Holberg had in his time offered prizes for meritorious poems, and several others had followed his example. Artificial means of this kind soon, however, became superfluous, for poets soon sprang up in such great numbers ​that even Holberg himself was annoyed by them. Still this prize system was even further developed by the foundation, in 1759, of the "society for the advancement of the sciences of the beautiful and the useful." This society, to the founding of which the above mentioned author of popular and philosophical works, Tyge Rothe, had given the impulse, had for its object the establishment of rewards which were to encourage young poets and guide the public taste. The society consisted almost exclusively of persons who were well-nigh destitute of any real appreciation of poetry, but who were engaged in various kinds of pursuits. They accepted the standard of the age, and were thoroughly satisfied when, instead of genuine poetry, they received pretty thoughts, expressed in intelligible, smooth and metrical verses. The only truly competent member of the society was Klopstock, who, in 1751, had been called to Denmark by Frederik V, and remained in the country until 1770, when he went to Hamburg, where he stayed until his death in 1803, but supported during all this time by the Danish Government. He enjoyed a high reputation in the leading literary circles of Germany, and exercised a powerful influence on the development of the poetical taste in Denmark. He unquestionably did some good, and it may be said that the greatest poet of the epoch, Johannes Ewald, through him received his main stimulus, though the gifted youth soon surpassed his master and successfully emancipated himself from Klopstock's weak points. But few of Klopstock's numerous followers succeeded in doing this. In their dull poems they faithfully reproduced the affected manner of the German poet, with its high-sounding phrases and hollow pathos. Klopstock's influence on Danish poetry was, therefore, on the whole not a favorable one; nor could it be so, for his essentially German spirit was unable to make due allowance for the national Danish element. Among the small number of poems in Klopstock's style that are something more than mere soulless imitations, we must call attention to a few odes by the Norwegian, Peder Stenersen (1723​1776). His best work, the didactic poem "Junkerskilden," betrays, however, unmistakable traces of the influence of English poetry.^[8]

The Norwegian, Christian Braunmann Tullin (1728-65), was also a genuine poetical genius, who, unlike the imitators of Klopstock, chose as his models English poets, particularly those who describe natural scenery. He had already gained some reputation by his rather tame cantatas, when, in 1758, he composed the idyllic wedding poem "Maidagen." This poem was received with great favor, and, in spite of its subtle reflections, which seem to us wearisome and heavy, it is a poem characterized by a warmth of feeling and natural freshness that were extremely rare during this period. When the society above mentioned in 1759 offered a prize for the best poem describing "navigation; its origin and results," Tullin, who was engaged in private business in his native town, Christiania, still found time to compete and he won the prize. In his poem he sought, as far as possible, to impart some poetical interest to this matter-of-fact theme; and yet the judges failed to be altogether satisfied with his performance; but found that the poet in his production had been guided too much by his own "fancy" than he had sought to answer adequately the questions propounded. A similar reproach was also expressed in regard to the manner in which Tullin had treated another prize theme proposed by the society "on the excellence of the creation in reference to the order and arrangement of all created things." And yet this was the most grandly conceived and most beautifully executed of all Tullin's works.^[9]

In the year 1764 the "Society for the advancement of the beautiful and the useful" published an allegorical narrative in prose called "Lykkens Tempel." It was the first work given ​to the public by Johannes Ewald. He was the son of a rigorously puritanic priest, and was born in Copenhagen on the 18th of November, 1743. In his eleventh year, immediately after the death of his father, he was sent to Slesvig, where an old, pedantic rector was charged with the difficult task of educating the merry, vivacious boy, in whose soul were already dawning the many-hued images of poetry. While yet a mere boy his imagination was so vivid that it at times utterly overpowered him and carried him away. Thus when only thirteen years old he once ran away from the house of his tutor with the intention of going to Holland. From there he was going to Batavia, trusting that a favorable destiny would cause him to be shipwrecked and cast him on some deserted island. He had just been reading Robinson Crusoe. When the seven years' war broke out he was seized with an irresistible desire of becoming a soldier, and life in Slesvig, with its scholastic drudgery, became unendurable to him. In order to be released from this thraldom and to be allowed to enter the military academy, he wrote a letter to his mother relating a dream that he fancied he had had, in which an angel had appeared to him with a sword in one hand and a pen in the other, and the angel had asked him which of the two he preferred; and then, when as a dutiful son he had seized hold of the pen, the angel had frowned on him. But this expedient availed him nothing, and in his fifteenth year he became a student at Copenhagen. Here occurred an event which suddenly gave a new turn to his life. He made the acquaintance of a beautiful young girl, by name Arense Hulegaard, a relative of his step-father, and his youthful heart was at once kindled with an ardent love which only became extinct with his death. Realizing that if he continued the study of theology, which he had begun, at least ten years would elapse before he could obtain his beloved, there again awoke in him his old dreams of military renown and fortune. Without communicating his plans to anyone, and without taking formal leave, the sixteen-year-old youth left his home to ​become a Prussian hussar. As a hussar he intended to enter upon a career which was soon to raise him to greatness and send him home to his Arense. But things turned out quite otherwise than he had imagined. Instead of becoming a "Kammerhussar," as had been promised him, he was compelled to accept the position of a common infantry soldier, and he fared no better when he deserted the Prussians and went to the Austrians. After a year and a half of dangers and privations, through which he contracted the physical weakness that caused him so much suffering in after life, he again deserted and returned to Copenhagen. Two years later he passed his theological examination, but Arense married another man. Henceforth Ewald abandoned all hope of earthly happiness, and in this frame of mind he wrote the prose narrative "Lykkens Tempel," which was published by the "society for the advancement of the beautiful and the useful," after it had been sent back to the author several times for revision and correction.

The same year in which this story was published the society offered a prize for an ode on the attributes of divinity. Ewald competed, but instead of the required ode he handed in a lyrical drama, the "Adamiade." It was sent back to him with the remark that it certainly showed a "faint glimmering of genius," and he was asked to mend and improve it, whereupon Ewald declared that "if he could not be the first poet in the realm, he did not care to be the second," and therewith he undertook to recast and work over his poem until "all had to confess that since the days of King Skjold his equal had not been seen." While he was engaged on the revision of this poem, it became apparent to him that what he most of all lacked was thorough knowledge, and so he resolved not to write a line for two years, but devote all his time to study and reading. Of the poets he studied, Corneille and Klopstock had the greatest charm for him, and the latter especially exercised a powerful influence on the development of his poetical talent, an influence, however, from which he later gradually emancipated himself.

​His two years set apart for study had not yet expired when his mother persuaded him to participate in a competition for the prize offered for the best poem on the death of Frederik V (1766). Ewald yielded to her entreaties and wrote the most beautiful lyric poem that had ever been composed in Denmark, and thus laid the foundation of his great fame as a lyric poet. In the year 1769 the Adamiade appeared in a revised edition with the title changed to "Adam and Eve, a biblical drama in five acts." The work shows to what a degree Ewald had become Klopstock's disciple, while there are also found traces of Corneille's influence. In spite of this Ewald's own deep, poetical nature also reveals itself in many passages, and though the poet is not perfect master of the dramatic form, which by the way was not at all suited to the subject, and though his style is somewhat artificial and bombastic, still the work is of great interest as the first serious attempt made in Danish literature in solving a great poetical problem in a grand style. The poet now made Klopstock's acquaintance, who strengthened his purpose of taking the theme for his next book from Danish legendary history, and he chose the story of Rolf Krage as told by Saxo. In 1770 there appeared a tragedy written in prose, entitled Rolf Krage, which notwithstanding its manifest faults contains passages of great beauty, and which is well worthy of our attention, since it imparted the first impulse to a fertile national movement in the field of art.

After a few satirical dramas and a number of excellent lyrical poems there appeared in 1773 the tragedy, "Balder's Death," the materials for which had also been borrowed from Saxo, and which is distinguished for the beauty of its style and language. It was the first drama in Denmark written in iambic pentameters, and there is a ring in the verses, particularly in the interludes, such as had never before been heard in the Danish language. Ewald composed this tragedy in the little village of Rungsted, which has a romantic situation on the Sound, and which he has glorified in one of his ​most beautiful poems, "Rungsted's Lyksaligheder" (The bliss of Rungsted). Thither he withdrew, abandoned by relations and friends. An inexorable fate continued to pursue the unhappy poet. His health had gradually become utterly broken down, and he was almost constantly racked by excruciating pains. There were but few who understood him, and the work which occupied him was by most people regarded as a breadless profession, and he was looked upon as a worthless fellow. Everybody turned away from him, and to escape absolute starvation he was obliged to degrade his poetical gifts by the composition of paid poems for certain occasions, and finally it was even proposed to send him to the poor-house. But in spite of all this he managed to keep up his spirits, and many of his most exquisite works date from this very period of illness and indigence. At last even fate seemed weary of persecuting him, and the government gave him a salary which enabled him to live an independent life in Copenhagen, where the number of his friends and admirers rapidly increased. Here he wrote in 1779 his last great work "Fiskerne" (the fishermen), a dramatized picture of the life of the people on the coast, among whom he had dwelt so long. In this book, unquestionably Ewald's best work, are found the songs "Kong Kristian stod ved höien Mast" (King Christian stood by the lofty mast),^[10] which has ever since been the favorite national song of the Danes, and "Liden Gunvor" (Little Gunvor), in which the spirit and tone of the popular ballad has been reproduced in a masterly manner. The sunshine which burst through the clouds on the poet's return to the capital as a result of brighter and happier conditions of life did not last long. His health was and remained ruined, and his illness soon so completely overpowered him that he frequently was unable to wield even a pen. "Fiskerne" was the result of the last blazing up of his gigantic spirit, which only the most intense suffering could compel to utter the faintest complaint, and this exquisite poem was ​written under conditions which would seem to make poetical composition of any kind utterly impossible. Ewald died after a painful illness on March 17, 1781, scarcely thirty-eight years old.

Ewald is one of the greatest lyric poets of the North, perhaps even the very greatest. Many of his songs belong to the most beautiful productions of northern literature, and the heights of sublimity to which his greater poems climb have seldom been attained by any poet. His language is pure, clear, and noble, and in his verses particularly he shows an unsurpassed mastery of form. In his best prose work, "Johannes Ewalds Levnet og Meninger," he has given us an excellent autobiography, which he, unfortunately, did not complete.^[11]

The second great poet which this period produced is the Norwegian, Johan Herman Wessel (born 1742). In sketching Ewald's poetical activity it was necessary to call attention to the German influence, to which he was for a long time subject, but from which he, fortunately, was at length able to free himself. Ewald came less in contact with the French element which at that time invaded Danish literature, and but little French influence is to be traced in his writings. Wessel's great merit consists in having fearlessly attacked the excrescences and soulless imitations of the French element in Denmark, and he effectually checked them by making them thoroughly ridiculous.

The Danish Theatre had been reopened not long before Holberg's death, but was eking out a miserable existence. Holberg had had no successors who were able to nourish the popular taste for good Danish plays, or who could have satisfied the taste had it been present. Mainly through the example of the court, there soon developed such a preference for French tragedies and Italian operas, that all other things were thrown into the background. After the theatre had for ​some time been compelled to put up with translations of such pieces as Voltaire's "Zaire," "Merope," etc., the Norwegian, Nils Bredal, came forward in 1771 with his opera, "Thronfölgen i Sidon," written as text to Italian music in the high-flown style of that period. The opera was produced in the Royal Theatre, and was received with an applause so great that the author was forthwith appointed director of the theatre. Shortly afterward the young and talented critic, Rosenstand Goiske, wrote in his dramatic journal a very bitter review of this opera, and when Bredal replied with a farce in one act called "den dramatishe Journal," the theatre was literally turned into a fighting arena between the friends of the director and those of the critic, which conflict was the occasion of Ewald's satirical drama, "De brutale Klappere " (the brutal applauders). The next year the Norwegian Johan Nordal Brun, an able writer and gifted poet, wrote in the conventional French style a tragedy, "Zarine," which was produced at the Royal Theatre, and was received with boundless applause.

Now appeared Wessel's great parody, the tragedy called "Kjærlighed uden Strömper" (Love without stockings), written throughout in the style of the pseudo classical tragedies, in Alexandrines, with here and there an air inserted. From beginning to end there was a scrupulous and most ridiculous regard for the prescribed "unities." Wessel availed himself of the conventional, stereotyped apparatus of the above mentioned dramas, that is to say of the hero and heroine, the rival of the former and the betrothed. The action likewise consists chiefly in the conflict between virtue and love; in short, the whole play is a faithful copy of his models, and a parody has seldom been more skilfully planned or executed with more precision. The contents of the play are briefly the following: Grete, the female lover, has in a dream received a terrible warning that she "will never be married unless the wedding takes place that very day." But her bridegroom, the tailor-apprentice Johan von Ehrenpreis, ​is unable to lead her to the altar on this day because he lacks stockings and he cannot present himself on an occasion so solemn in ordinary boots. But Grete is determined to have the wedding, and so her friend Mette suggests to Johan the idea that he steal a pair of stockings from his rival, Mads, whose prospects for obtaining Grete himself have been noticeably improved by Johan's lack of stockings. After a terrible inward struggle between love and virtue, love conquers, and Johan becomes a thief. Grete has evil forebodings, but Johan indignantly refuses to countenance them as unworthy of both her and himself, and everything promises well when Mads and his friend Jesper discover the theft and charge Johan with it in the presence of his bride. Johan is unwilling to outlive the disgrace and stabs himself, and Grete follows his example. Then Mads kills himself from grief at the loss of his beloved, and his friend Jesper follows him faithfully. Finally Mette, too, follows suit and kills herself simply because she does not care to be the only survivor, and thus the play terminates as tragically as could well be desired.

The effect of the drama depends on the contrast between the ludicrous action of the most insignificant persons and the grand plot planned according to all the rules of art, on the one hand, and on the other a pretentious diction which struts about in high buskins, and which, at every moment, forgets its own assumed part, while the natural utterances of these persons with their coarse phrases and insipid figures of speech obtrude themselves even in the midst of their grandest speeches. The poet has accomplished his difficult task in a most satisfactory manner and filled his play to the brim with fun and humor, and while he never exaggerates, he betrays no anxiety lest he should give too loose reins to his sallies

The chief literary-historical value of Wessel's parody consists in his attack on the affected French taste, and this value is not lessened by the circumstance that he probably borrowed his idea from an older English play, "The Rehearsal," which ​was written in 1672 by the duke of Buckingham, and which ridiculed the pseudo-classical style of the dramatic literature, for the Danish parody is vastly superior. It obtains its high, imperishable value by its universal character, and though it was primarily written for the purpose of ridiculing certain favorite Danish plays, it is at the same time aimed at the essentially false tendency of art in Wessel's time, and is, on the whole, a standing protest against all affectation and bombast in art.

Wessel's tragical parody did not at once produce the effect intended by the poet, for the public did not thoroughly comprehend the significance of the satire, which ran through the whole play. The cheerful and vivid style did not fail to please, but people were perplexed in regard to the purpose of the drama, and did not know whether to laugh or to cry, a fact which gives us a fair idea of the overstrained character of the plays which were at that time offered to the public and which were listened to with all seeming gravity. The affected mannerism, with its sham, plaintive pathos, still held its own on the stage for some time, though Wessel by his striking parody gave the impulse to its final banishment.

Wessel was not a very prolific writer, and his complete works fill only one moderately sized volume. In addition to the drama mentioned, he wrote two other plays, which, however, have no value whatever. But we have from his pen a few pithy, lyrical poems, among which the "ode to sleep" is a gem of the first order. Still more important are some of his humorous narrations in verse, published in the weekly paper, "Votre Serviteur, Otiosis," which he edited for a short time. Some of these remain unequalled in Danish literature both in form and comical effect.

Wessel's name is inseparably united with the so-called "Norwegian Society," whose most prominent member he was. This society, which had been founded in 1772, was at first intended simply as an organization for bringing together the Norwegians who resided in Copenhagen, and who were ​already beginning to feel more or less dissatisfied with their Danish surroundings. But the society, which contained several gifted members, gradually assumed a literary character. It undertook to criticise literary productions and to publish prize essays and poems. In this society particular homage was paid to French taste, and the German school was violently opposed. The Norwegian society's shafts were especially aimed at the worthless imitators of Klopstock, nor did they spare Ewald, whose admirers and friends in turn organized "The Danish Literary Society" and elected Ewald an honorary member. The struggle between these two schools exercised a wholesome influence on the masses by awakening among them an interest in literature and by helping them to appreciate the literary productions of the day. The Norwegian society particularly did a great deal of good by its sound criticism and pure taste. In this circle Wessel spent the greater part of his time, and outside of it he was but little known. Constantly embarrassed by poverty and not thoroughly appreciated by his contemporaries, he sought consolation in the wine-bottle and died prematurely in 1785, barely 43 years old.^[12]

Several of the members of the Norwegian society made more or less successful attempts at poetry. In this connection it is worthy of notice that we find developed already at this time that national feeling which is so conspicuous in modern Norwegian literature, and the poets of the Norwegian society invariably sought their materials in Norway, in its natural scenery, in its popular life and traditions, etc. In their works they even occasionally made use of the popular dialects of Norway. Among the Norwegian poets of this period the following are to be mentioned:

Johan Nordal Brun (1745-1816). Besides "Zarine" referred to above, he wrote another tragedy, "Einer Tambarskjelver," in which we find an episode from old Norwegian ​history; but he did far better work in his hymns and in his charming patriotic songs, such as "Boer jeg paa det höie Fjeld"^[13] (Dwell I on the lofty mount), and "For Norge, Kjæmpers Födeland"^[13] (To Norway, mother of the brave), etc. By his grand and commanding individuality Johan Nordal Brun played an important part in the intellectual life of his time. In a national sense he was one of the most fearless advocates of independence and emancipation from the foreign influences that monopolized everything, and in his religious work he was an ardent and powerful champion of Christianity against rationalism. His "Hellige Taler" (sermons) are characterized not only by freshness and vigor, but also by a sublime and perfectly entrancing eloquence. To the day of his death the people came in vast numbers to listen to him. In 1803 he was appointed bishop in Bergen, and few men have left behind them a more fondly cherished name. The brothers Claus Frimann (1746-1829) and Peder Haebo Frimann (1752-1839) became very popular by their national songs, full of graphic descriptions of the natural scenery of Norway. The former also distinguished himself as a popular poet, and the poetical collections "Almuens Sanger" (the people's bard), published in 1790, and "Den syngende Sömand" (the singing sailor), published in 1793, became great favorites. The latter made in his romance, "Axel Thordsön og skjön Valborg," published in 1775, an attempt at reproducing a theme from the old heroic lays; but he failed for the reason that he substituted for the charming style of the ballad a broad rhetorical declamation; but still his works show that the author was the first to discover the true sources of Scandinavian poetry. Klaus Fasting (1746-91) became distinguished by his epigrams, and Johan Wibe (1748-82) by his songs. The elegiac poet, Jonas Rein (1760-1821), and the merry bard of joy, Jens Zetlitz (1761-1821), enjoyed much celebrity, though their productions have no longer any special value.^[14]

​Among the Norwegian poets who did not belong to the Norwegian society, Edward Storm (1749-94) was the greatest. His songs, "Hr Zinklar" and "Thorvald Vidförle" deserve attention on account of their perfect imitation of the style of the heroic ballads. His fables and his songs composed in a Norwegian peasant dialect are very fine.^[15]

Of Danish poets, in addition to those already named, the following deserve mention: The brothers Peder Magnus (1743-96) and Peder Koford Trojel (1754-84) distinguished themselves as composers of satires. Johan Clemens Tode (1736-1806) was born in Germany, came to Denmark in 1757 and acquired a thorough knowledge of Danish, in which tongue he afterward became a prolific writer, especially of medical works and poems. He was most successful in merry songs and in farces. The physician Rasmus Frankenau (1767-1814) also wrote hymns and songs that were received with much favor. Pram, mentioned above, was also a fertile poet, and his poetical productions stood in high repute among his contemporaries. His epic poem, "Stærkodder," was universally admired, though it is now of interest solely because it was the first production of its kind in Denmark. Nor can much present value be attributed to the poetical productions of Rahbek, though his sentimental tales and domestic works were highly appreciated in their day. On the other hand, his drinking songs, a kind of poetry that was much in vogue in the clubs and social circles of the period, have not lost their peculiar freshness and charm.

In the field of the drama there were in addition to those already described and to P. A. Heiberg, of whose bitter farces we have already spoken, the following: Thomas Thaarup (1749-1821), especially known as the author of the little dramatic idyls "Höstgildet" (the harvest feast) and "Peders Bryllup" (Peter's wedding), which found many readers on account of their simple homely style and their sympathetic and sweet songs. The latter especially was very popular. ​Ole Johan Samsöe (1759-1796) was an eminent poet, whose historical drama “Dyveke” and northern tales rank far above the average performances of that time, but death claimed him before he had attained his full development. Christian Levin Sander (1756-1819) wrote plays of which the patriotic tragedy “Niels Ebbesen” was the most important, and met with great favor in its day. Charlotte Dorothea Biehl wrote a number of sentimental plays and tales, the value of which cannot be regarded as very high. On the other hand she succeeded so well in a translation of the works of Cervantes, particularly of his Don Quixote, that there has even recently been issued a new edition of the latter. Her letters, which have been preserved and published in our day contain interesting contributions to our knoweldge of the history of the social culture and of the life of prominent individuals of that period. The Norwegian Enevold Falsen (1755-1808) and the Dane Oluf Christian Olufsen (1764-1827) are to be named as authors of plays. Among the works of the former we may mention “Dragedukhen” (the child bringing good luck); among those of the latter “Gulddaasen” (the golden box); both pieces long enjoyed great popularity.^[16]

Wessel’s last poem was a letter in rhymes in which he welcomed Jens Baggesen to Parnassos, when the latter in 1785 had published his first great work in verse, “Komiske Fortællinger.” And there was no one more eminently entitled to the inheritance that had been kept by Wessel than this very Baggesen, who was so skilful in clothing his sparkling wit in the most airy and elegant language. Baggesen was born in 1764 in the little town of Korsör in Zealand. ​His parents were poor and his early education had been much neglected. But his excellent talents attracted the attention of friends who interested themselves in his behalf and gave him an opportunity to study. Even his first poems were marked by great beauty of form and evinced a very rare command of language. This gave him access to the most refined circles, where his great personal amiability soon made him a general favorite. He gained the good will of the art-loving duke of Augustenburg to such a degree that the latter at his own expense sent the young poet to Germany, Switzerland and France, during which journey he made the acquaintance of the most celebrated poets and philosophers, such as Voss, Klopstock, Wieland, Schiller, Herder, Jacobi and others. He also studied Kant’s philosophy, which filled him with so great enthusiasm that he assumed the name Immanuel in honor of the great philosopher. The varied impressions made on his receptive and susceptible mind by all the new things he saw, Baggesen embodied in his greatest prose work, “Labyrinthen eller Digtervandringer” (2 vols. 1792-1793) a work distinguished for its vivid and graphic descriptions and for its sparkling humor. When he returned to Denmark the narrow conditions of his country no longer satisfied his enlarged intellectual horizon, and he already then entertained the thought of becoming a German poet. He did not remain long in Denmark, but soon went abroad again and journeyed from place to place, continually occupied with great plans which never, however, were realized. He was always planning, never at rest. Prom 1800 to 1811 he resided almost without interruption in Paris. In 1811 he was appointed professor of the Danish language at the University of Kiel, but already in 1813 he abandoned this position and returned to Copenhagen. Here he at once began his great literary war with Oehlenschläger, which was to cause him so much trouble and to estrange from him almost all his friends. Then he once more left Denmark never to see it again. He died in 1826 in Hamburg on his return from ​a journey abroad, without reaching his native land, where he had wished to breathe his last.

Besides the works of Baggesen already described, we must make mention of his numerous lyrical poems and his numerous rhymed letters, all of which are marked by a refined and graceful style and a charming rhythm. The form of this kind of poetical composition had already been introduced by Wessel in his comical tales, but by Baggesen it was developed to perfection, and here his wonderful command of language shone in its greatest splendor. Particularly interesting is his witty æsthetical satire “Gjengengeren og han selv, eller Baggesen over Baggesen” (The ghost and himself, or Baggesen on Baggesen), which dates from the time when his mind was in its greatest fermentation (1807). In this production the poet makes an attempt to break with the olden time and to rise to the heights of the new era, which was dawning victorious on all sides, and the legitimate claims of which Baggesen was thoroughly able to appreciate. But his poem provoked decided opposition on account of its violent attack on persons and principles that enjoyed general recognition, and to which Baggesen had himself formerly paid his homage, and his prophecies concerning the new epoch which he was going to found were not fulfilled. Among his prose works we must not omit to mention his graceful translation of Holberg’s Niels Klim.

Baggesen has been called “the poet of the graces,” a surname which he well deserves, for all his writings are marked with a rare grace and beauty of form. But his poetry lacks marrow, it lacks a definite concise view. It is full to overflowing with longing and desire, but that is all. On the other hand he moves with a grace and confidence never equalled by any of his predecessors in the most varied poetical moods, from the most sublime pathos to the most wanton humor. This in connection with an entirely exceptional intellectual tendency, gives him a very distinct position in Danish literature. He does not belong to the old time, for ​he was continually striving to get beyond its narrow circle of ideas. Nor does he belong to the modern time, for he merely felt a foreboding of that which was to come, without being able to take a share in it. Few poets have contained a larger number of contrasts or been less able to control them, notwithstanding the great versatility of mind, which was ever at his service. But perhaps the latter was the very cause of the former phenomenon.^[17]