Dictionary:About Chinese/Eastern Min
Eastern Min or Min Dong (閩東語／闽东语) is a major branch of Min Chinese, spoken around the area of Fuzhou. Dictionary uses the Bàng-uâ-cê (平話字／平话字) system (Foochow Romanized) as the romanisation of Eastern Min Chinese.
Bàng-uâ-cê was devised in the 19th century and recorded the phonology of the Fuzhou dialect at the time reasonably accurately. Some (mostly regular) sound changes have occurred since the inception of this romanisation scheme, but Bàng-uâ-cê remains a handy, albeit intricate system for representing the sounds of the modern Fuzhou dialect.
This article aims to explain the usage of this romanisation system. It assumes a basic understanding of the phonology of the Fuzhou dialect.
Unless otherwise indicated, the pronunciations below are in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).
Initials (15) edit
| Initial | IPA | Example character | Romanisation of character | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unchanged | Lenited | Nasal | |||
| b | /p/ | /β/ | /m/ | 邊 | biĕng |
| p | /pʰ/ | /β/ | /m/ | 波 | pŏ̤ |
| m | /m/ | /m/ | /m/ | 蒙 | mùng |
| d | /t/ | /l/ | /n/ | 低 | dă̤ |
| t | /tʰ/ | /l/ | /n/ | 他 | tă |
| n | /nˡ/ | /nˡ/ | /nˡ/ | 日 | nĭk |
| l | /l̃/ | /l̃/ | /nˡ/ | 柳 | liū |
| g | /k/ | (null) | /ŋ/ | 求 | giù |
| k | /kʰ/ | (null) | /ŋ/ | 氣 | ké |
| ng | /ŋ/ | /ŋ/ | /ŋ/ | 語 | ngṳ̄ |
| c | /t͡s/ | /ʒ/ | /ʒ/ | 曾 | cĕng |
| ch | /t͡sʰ/ | /ʒ/ | /ʒ/ | 出 | chók |
| s | /s/ | /l/ | /n/ | 時 | sì |
| h | /h/ | (null) | /ŋ/ | 喜 | hī |
| Ø (null) | (null) | (null) | /ŋ/ | 鶯 | ĕng |
Initials undergo changes when the syllable is a non-initial syllable of a (fossilised) compound:
- Lenited pronunciations are used when the previous syllable has a null coda or a /-ʔ/ ‹-h› coda, and
- Nasal pronunciations are used when the previous syllable has a /-ŋ/ ‹-ng› coda.
Finals (33) edit
Spelling-tone chart edit
The following table illustrates the finals of 19th-century Fuzhou dialect. Certain finals have different spellings depending on the tone of the syllable, owing the tone-dependent pronunciations of these finals. Per Chinese linguistics conventions, checked-tone syllables are listed alongside their non-checked-tone equivalents.
| Example character | Pronunciation of character | Tones | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dark level | Dark rising | Dark departing | Dark checked | Light level | Light rising | Light departing | Light checked | ||
| 春 | chŭng | ŭng | ūng | óng | ók | ùng | ūng | ông | ŭk |
| 花 | huă | uă | uā | uá | uáh | uà | uā | uâ | uăh |
| 香 | hiŏng | iŏng | iōng | ióng | iók | iòng | iōng | iông | iŏk |
| 秋 | chiŭ | iŭ | iū | éu | éuh | iù | iū | êu | iŭh |
| 山 | săng | ăng | āng | áng | ák | àng | āng | âng | ăk |
| 開 | kăi | ăi | āi | ái | áih | ài | āi | âi | ăih |
| 嘉 | gă | ă | ā | á | áh | à | ā | â | ăh |
| 賓 | bĭng | ĭng | īng | éng | ék | ìng | īng | êng | ĭk |
| 歡 | huăng | uăng | uāng | uáng | uák | uàng | uāng | uâng | uăk |
| 歌 | gŏ̤ | ŏ̤ | ō̤ | ó̤ | ó̤h | ò̤ | ō̤ | ô̤ | ŏ̤h |
| 須 | sṳ̆ | ṳ̆ | ṳ̄ | é̤ṳ | é̤ṳh | ṳ̀ | ṳ̄ | ê̤ṳ | ṳ̆h |
| 杯 | buŏi | uŏi | uōi | uói | uóih | uòi | uōi | uôi | uŏih |
| 孤 | gŭ | ŭ | ū | ó | óh | ù | ū | ô | ŭh |
| 燈 | dĕng | ĕng | ēng | áing | áik | èng | ēng | âing | ĕk |
| 光 | guŏng | uŏng | uōng | uóng | uók | uòng | uōng | uông | uŏk |
| 輝 | hŭi | ŭi | ūi | ói | óih | ùi | ūi | ôi | ŭih |
| 燒 | siĕu | iĕu | iēu | iéu | iéuh | ièu | iēu | iêu | iĕuh |
| 銀 | ngṳ̀ng | ṳ̆ng | ṳ̄ng | é̤ṳng | é̤ṳk | ṳ̀ng | ṳ̄ng | ê̤ṳng | ṳ̆k |
| 缸 | gŏng | ŏng | ōng | áung | áuk | òng | ōng | âung | ŏk |
| 之 | cĭ | ĭ | ī | é | éh | ì | ī | ê | ĭh |
| 東 | dĕ̤ng | ĕ̤ng | ē̤ng | áe̤ng | áe̤k | è̤ng | ē̤ng | âe̤ng | ĕ̤k |
| 郊 | gău | ău | āu | áu | áuh | àu | āu | âu | ăuh |
| 過 | guó | uŏ | uō | uó | uóh | uò | uō | uô | uŏh |
| 西 | să̤ | ă̤ | ā̤ | á̤ | á̤h | à̤ | ā̤ | â̤ | ă̤h |
| 橋 | giò | iŏ | iō | ió | ióh | iò | iō | iô | iŏh |
| 雞 | giĕ | iĕ | iē | ié | iéh | iè | iē | iê | iĕh |
| 聲 | siăng | iăng | iāng | iáng | iák | iàng | iāng | iâng | iăk |
| 催 | chŏi | ŏi | ōi | ó̤i | ó̤ih | òi | ōi | ô̤i | ŏih |
| 初 | chĕ̤ | ĕ̤ | ē̤ | áe̤ | áe̤h | è̤ | ē̤ | âe̤ | ĕ̤h |
| 天 | tiĕng | iĕng | iēng | iéng | iék | ièng | iēng | iêng | iĕk |
| 奇 | kiă | iă | iā | iá | iáh | ià | iā | iâ | iăk |
| 歪 | uăi | uăi | uāi | uái | uáih | uài | uāi | uâi | uăih |
| 溝 | gĕu | ĕu | ēu | áiu | áiuh | èu | ēu | âiu | ĕuh |
When there is tone-dependent spelling change in a final, the orange-background cells indicate closed rimes (緊韻／紧韵), and blue-background cells indicate open rimes (鬆韻／松韵). The closed rimes are the underlying rimes of a final, and open rimes surface when the tone of the syllable (after tone sandhi) is dark departing, light departing, or dark checked.
Spelling-IPA chart edit
The table below shows the IPA pronunciations of these finals at the time, as well as reflexes in the modern Fuzhou dialect. Some of the rime combinations in the table above are not found in actual speech; these will be marked by — here.
| Example character | Pronunciation of character | Tone | Spelling | 19th-century pronunciation | Modern pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Closed rime | Open rime | Closed rime | Open rime | Closed rime | Open rime | |||
| 春 | chŭng | Non-checked | ung | ong | /uŋ/ | /ouŋ/ | /uŋ/ | /ouŋ/ |
| Checked | uk | ok | /uk̚/ | /ouk̚/ | /uʔ/ | /ouʔ/ | ||
| 花 | huă | Non-checked | ua | /ua/ | /ua/ | /uɑ/ | ||
| Checked | uah | /uaʔ/ | /uaʔ/ | /uɑʔ/ | ||||
| 香 | hiŏng | Non-checked | iong | /ioŋ/ | /yoŋ/ → /uoŋ/ | /yɔŋ/ → /uɔŋ/ | ||
| Checked | iok | /iok̚/ | /yoʔ/ → /uoʔ/ | /yɔʔ/ → /uɔʔ/ | ||||
| 秋 | chiŭ | Non-checked | iu | eu | /iu/ | /eu/ | /ieu/ | /iɛu/ |
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 山 | săng | Non-checked | ang | /aŋ/ | /aŋ/ → /iaŋ/ | /ɑŋ/ → /iɑŋ/ | ||
| Checked | ak | /ak̚/ | /aʔ/ → /iaʔ/ | /ɑʔ/ → /iɑʔ/ | ||||
| 開 | kăi | Non-checked | ai | /ai/ | /ai/ | /ɑi/ | ||
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 嘉 | gă | Non-checked | a | /a/ | /a/ → /ia/ | /ɑ/ → /iɑ/ | ||
| Checked | ah | /aʔ/ | /aʔ/ → /iaʔ/ | /ɑʔ/ → /iɑʔ/ | ||||
| 賓 | bĭng | Non-checked | ing | eng | /iŋ/ | /eiŋ/ | /iŋ/ | /eiŋ/ |
| Checked | ik | ek | /ik̚/ | /eik̚/ | /iʔ/ | /ɛiʔ/ | ||
| 歡 | huăng | Non-checked | uang | /uaŋ/ | /uaŋ/ | /uɑŋ/ | ||
| Checked | uak | /uak̚/ | /uaʔ/ | /uɑʔ/ | ||||
| 歌 | gŏ̤ | Non-checked | o̤ | /ɔ/ | /o/ | /ɔ/ | ||
| Checked | o̤h | /ɔʔ/ | /oʔ/ | /ɔʔ/ | ||||
| 須 | sṳ̆ | Non-checked | ṳ | e̤ṳ | /y/ | /øy/ | /y/ | /øy/ |
| Checked | ṳh | e̤ṳh | /yʔ/ | /øyʔ/ | /yʔ/ | /øyʔ/ | ||
| 杯 | buŏi | Non-checked | uoi | /uɪ/ | /uoɪ/ | /uoi/ | /uɔi/ | |
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 孤 | gŭ | Non-checked | u | o | /u/ | /ou/ | /u/ | /ou/ |
| Checked | uh | oh | /uʔ/ | /ouʔ/ | /uʔ/ | /ouʔ/ | ||
| 燈 | dĕng | Non-checked | eng | aing | /eiŋ/ | /aiŋ/ | /eiŋ/ | /aiŋ/ |
| Checked | ek | aik | /eik̚/ | /aik̚/ | /ɛiʔ/ | /aiʔ/ | ||
| 光 | guŏng | Non-checked | uong | /uoŋ/ | /uoŋ/ | /uɔŋ/ | ||
| Checked | uok | /uok̚/ | /uoʔ/ | /uɔʔ/ | ||||
| 輝 | hŭi | Non-checked | ui | oi | /ui/ | /oi/ | /uoi/ | /uɔi/ |
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 燒 | siĕu | Non-checked | ieu | /ieu/ | /ieu/ | /iɛu/ | ||
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 銀 | ngṳ̀ng | Non-checked | ṳng | e̤ṳng | /yŋ/ | /øyŋ/ | /yŋ/ | /øyŋ/ |
| Checked | ṳk | e̤ṳk | /yk̚/ | /øyk̚/ | /yʔ/ | /øyʔ/ | ||
| 缸 | gŏng | Non-checked | ong | aung | /ouŋ/ | /auŋ/ | /ouŋ/ | /ɑuŋ/ |
| Checked | ok | auk | /ouk̚/ | /auk̚/ | /ouʔ/ | /ɑuʔ/ | ||
| 之 | cĭ | Non-checked | i | e | /i/ | /e̞i/ | /i/ | /ɛi/ |
| Checked | ih | eh | /iʔ/ | /eiʔ/ | /iʔ/ | /ɛiʔ/ | ||
| 東 | dĕ̤ng | Non-checked | e̤ng | ae̤ng | /øŋ/ | /aøŋ/ | /øyŋ/ | /ɔyŋ/ |
| Checked | e̤k | ae̤k | /øk̚/ | /aøk̚/ | /øyʔ/ | /ɔyʔ/ | ||
| 郊 | gău | Non-checked | au | /au/ | /au/ | /ɑu/ | ||
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 過 | guó | Non-checked | uo | /uo/ | /uo/ | /uɔ/ | ||
| Checked | uoh | /uoʔ/ | /uoʔ/ | /uɔʔ/ | ||||
| 西 | să̤ | Non-checked | a̤ | /ɛ/ | /ɛ/ | /ɑ/ | ||
| Checked | a̤h | /ɛʔ/ | /ɛʔ/ | /ɑʔ/ | ||||
| 橋 | giò | Non-checked | io | /io/ | /yo/ → /uo/ | /yɔ/ → /uɔ/ | ||
| Checked | ioh | /ioʔ/ | /yoʔ/ → /uoʔ/ | /yɔʔ/ → /uɔʔ/ | ||||
| 雞 | giĕ | Non-checked | ie | /ie/ | /ie/ | /iɛ/ | ||
| Checked | ieh | /ieʔ/ | /ieʔ/ | /iɛʔ/ | ||||
| 聲 | siăng | Non-checked | iang | /iaŋ/ | /iaŋ/ | /iɑŋ/ | ||
| Checked | iak | /iak̚/ | /iaʔ/ | /iɑʔ/ | ||||
| 催 | chŏi | Non-checked | oi | o̤i | /oi/ | /ɔi/ | /øy/ | /ɔy/ |
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 初 | chĕ̤ | Non-checked | e̤ | ae̤ | /ø/ | /aø/ | /œ/ | /ɔ/ |
| Checked | e̤h | ae̤h | /øʔ/ | /aøʔ/ | /œʔ/ | |||
| 天 | tiĕng | Non-checked | ieng | /ieŋ/ | /ieŋ/ | /iɛŋ/ | ||
| Checked | iek | /iek̚/ | /ieʔ/ | /iɛʔ/ | ||||
| 奇 | kiă | Non-checked | ia | /ia/ | /ia/ | /iɑ/ | ||
| Checked | iah | /iaʔ/ | /iaʔ/ | /iɑʔ/ | ||||
| 歪 | uăi | Non-checked | uai | /uai/ | /uai/ | /uɑi/ | ||
| Checked | — | |||||||
| 溝 | gĕu | Non-checked | eu | aiu | /eu/ | /æu/ | /ɛu/ | /ɑu/ |
| Checked | — | |||||||
Additional finals edit
In addition to the finals listed so far, there are two finals which are only found in a limited number of words:
- [ŋ̍] ~ [n̩] ~ [m̩]: allophones of the negative particle 伓 ‹n̂g›.
- /iau/: only found in /ŋiau˥˥/ (‹ngiău›, “meow of a cat; peeking”) and /miau˥˧/ (‹miàu›, “meow of a cat”).
IPA-spelling chart edit
| Modern pronunciation | Possible spelling (category of final) |
|---|---|
| /a/ | a (嘉) |
| /ɑ/ | a (嘉) a̤ (西) |
| /ai/ | ai (開) |
| /ɑi/ | ai (開) |
| /au/ | au (郊) |
| /ɑu/ | au (郊) aiu (溝) |
| /aŋ/ | ang (山) |
| /ɑŋ/ | ang (山) |
| /aʔ/ | ak (山) ah (嘉) |
| /ɑʔ/ | ak (山) ah (嘉) a̤h (西) |
| /eiŋ/ | eng (賓) eng (燈) |
| /aiŋ/ | aing (燈) |
| /ɛiʔ/ | ek (賓) ek (燈) eh (之) |
| /aiʔ/ | aik (燈) |
| /i/ | i (之) |
| /ɛi/ | e (之) |
| /ia/ | ia (奇) a (嘉) |
| /iɑ/ | ia (奇) a (嘉) |
| /iaŋ/ | iang (聲) ang (山) |
| /iɑŋ/ | iang (聲) ang (山) |
| /iaʔ/ | iak (聲) iah (奇) ak (山) ah (嘉) |
| /iɑʔ/ | iak (聲) iah (奇) ak (山) ah (嘉) |
| /ie/ | ie (雞) |
| /iɛ/ | ie (雞) |
| /ieu/ | ieu (燒) iu (秋) |
| /iɛu/ | ieu (燒) eu (秋) |
| /ieŋ/ | ieng (天) |
| /iɛŋ/ | ieng (天) |
| /ieʔ/ | iek (天) ieh (雞) |
| /iɛʔ/ | iek (天) ieh (雞) |
| /iŋ/ | ing (賓) |
| /iʔ/ | ik (賓) ih (之) |
| /o/ | o̤ (歌) |
| /ɔ/ | o̤ (歌) ae̤ (初) |
| /ouŋ/ | ong (缸) ong (春) |
| /ɑuŋ/ | aung (缸) |
| /ouʔ/ | ok (缸) oh (孤) |
| /ɑuʔ/ | auk (缸) |
| /oʔ/ | o̤h (歌) |
| /ɔʔ/ | o̤h (歌) |
| /u/ | u (孤) |
| /ou/ | o (孤) |
| /ua/ | ua (花) |
| /uɑ/ | ua (花) |
| /uai/ | uai (歪) |
| /uɑi/ | uai (歪) |
| /uaŋ/ | uang (歡) |
| /uɑŋ/ | uang (歡) |
| /uaʔ/ | uak (歡) uah (花) |
| /uɑʔ/ | uak (歡) uah (花) |
| /uo/ | uo (過) io (橋) |
| /uɔ/ | uo (過) io (橋) |
| /uoi/ | uoi (杯) ui (輝) |
| /uɔi/ | uoi (杯) oi (輝) |
| /uoŋ/ | uong (光) io (香) |
| /uɔŋ/ | uong (光) io (香) |
| /uoʔ/ | uok (光) uoh (過) iok (香) ioh (橋) |
| /uɔʔ/ | uok (光) uoh (過) iok (香) ioh (橋) |
| /uŋ/ | ung (春) |
| /uʔ/ | uk (春) uh (孤) |
| /y/ | ṳ (須) |
| /øy/ | e̤ṳ (須) oi (催) |
| /yo/ | io (橋) |
| /yɔ/ | io (橋) |
| /yoŋ/ | iong (香) |
| /yɔŋ/ | iong (香) |
| /yoʔ/ | iok (香) ioh (橋) |
| /yɔʔ/ | iok (香) ioh (橋) |
| /yŋ/ | ṳng (銀) |
| /øyŋ/ | e̤ng (東) e̤ṳng (銀) |
| /yʔ/ | ṳk (銀) ṳh (須) |
| /øyʔ/ | e̤k (東) e̤ṳk (銀) e̤ṳh (須) |
| /ɔy/ | o̤i (催) |
| /ɔyŋ/ | ae̤ng (東) |
| /ɔyʔ/ | ae̤k (東) |
| /œ/ | e̤ (初) |
| /œʔ/ | e̤h (初) |
| /ɛ/ | a̤ (西) |
| /ɛu/ | eu (溝) |
| /ɛʔ/ | a̤h (西) |
| /ŋ̍/ /n̩/ /m̩/ | ng (only in 伓) |
| /iau/ | iau (limited) |
Tones (7) edit
| Tone number | Tone name | Diacritics (on ‹a›) | Tone value |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Dark level | ă | /˥˥/ (55) |
| 2 | Rising | ā | /˧˧/ (33) |
| 3 | Dark departing | á | /˨˩˧/ (213) |
| 4 | Dark checked (A) | ák | /˨˦/ (24) |
| Dark checked (B) | áh | /˨˦/ (24) | |
| 5 | Light level | à | /˥˧/ (53) |
| 6 | Light departing | â | /˨˦˨/ (242) |
| 7 | Light checked (A) | ăk | /˥/ (5) |
| Light checked (B) | ăh | /˥/ (5) |
Additionally, there are two tones which only occur in tone sandhi:
| Tone number | Tone name | Diacritics (on ‹a›) | Tone value |
|---|---|---|---|
| 8 | Half dark departing | — | /˨˩/ (21) |
| 9 | Half light departing | — | /˧˥/ (35) |
Tone sandhi edit
Tone sandhi rules in the Fuzhou dialect are complex. Generally, only non-final syllables in a word undergo tone sandhi.
The table below shows the two-syllable tonal sandhi rules; the cells indicate the tone of the first syllable after tone sandhi.
| Tone of 1st syllable ＼ Tone of 2nd syllable | Dark level /˥/ | Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Rising /˧/ | Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked /˨˦/ |
| Dark level /˥/ Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked (B) /˨˦/ | Dark level /˥/ | Light level /˥˧/ | ||
| Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Dark level /˥/ | Rising /˧/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | |
| Rising /˧/ Dark checked (A) /˨˦/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | Half light departing /˧˥/ | Dark level /˥/ | |
And the three-syllable tone sandhi rules are:
| Original tone | After tone sandhi | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| First syllable | Second syllable | Third syllable | First syllable | Second syllable | Third syllable |
| All tones | Dark level /˥/ Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked (B) /˨˦/ | Dark level /˥/ Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | Dark level /˥/ | No change |
| Rising /˧/ Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked /˨˦/ | Light level /˥˧/ | ||||
| Rising /˧/ Dark checked (A) /˨˦/ | Dark level /˥/ Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | |||
| Rising /˧/ | Half light departing /˧˥/ | ||||
| Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked /˨˦/ | Dark level /˥/ | ||||
| Dark level /˥/ Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked (B) /˨˦/ | Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Dark level /˥/ Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Dark level /˥/ | Dark level /˥/ | |
| Rising /˧/ | Light level /˥˧/ | Rising /˧/ | |||
| Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked /˨˦/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | ||||
| Rising /˧/ Dark checked (A) /˨˦/ | Dark level /˥/ Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ Rising /˧/ | Half light departing /˧˥/ | Rising /˧/ | ||
| Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked /˨˦/ | Dark level /˥/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | |||
| Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ | Dark level /˥/ Light level /˥˧/ Light checked /˥/ Rising /˧/ | Rising /˧/ | Rising /˧/ | ||
| Dark departing /˨˩˧/ Light departing /˨˦˨/ Dark checked /˨˦/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | Half dark departing /˨˩/ | |||
For four-syllable words, there are two types of tone sandhi:
- In articulated speech, it is treated as two sequential two-syllable units, and undergo two-syllable tone sandhis accordingly;
- In fast speech, the first two syllables are reduced to a half dark departing tone, and the remaining two syllables undergo two-syllable tone sandhi.
Ways to handle special cases edit
> can be used to handle irregular pronunciations. The format is: orthography + > + actual_romanisation. For example:
* preceding an initial can be used to block lenition or nasal assimilation. For example:
- 食飯:
siăh>siĕh-*buông
Resources edit
If there are any questions, please leave a message on the talk page.