Perang

Perang saged dipunwontenaken kanthi simultan ing satunggal utawi langkung médan laga utawi theaters. Ing satunggiling médan laga, saged kémawon wonten satunggal utawi langkung kampanye militèr. Sawenèh aksi militèr wonten ing salebetipun kampanye militèr limrahipun kasebat pertempuran, sanajan terminologi punika kadhangkawis boten saged dipunterapaken wonten ing pertempuran ingkang migunaaken montor mabur, peluru kendhali utawi bom lan boten migunaaken wadyabala darat utawi seganten.

Perkawis ingkang saged ndadosaken perang limrahipun rumit lan wujud warni-warni masalah. Upami cecongkrahan tuwuh bab wigati, kados ta: tlatah, kadhaulatan, sumber daya utawi ideologi kamangka perundhinganipun gagal, saged nuwuhaken perang. Wonten ing bukunipun ingkang asesirah War Before Civilization, Lawrence H. Keeley, satunggiling profesor saking University of Illinois, ngétang yèn kinten-kinten 90-95% saking komunitas tartamtu naté, utawi sakedhikipun kala-kala magepokan kaliyan perang, lan kathah ingkang terus menerus. Satunggiling perang saged dipunwiwiti kanthi dheklarasi resmi mliginipun wonten ing perang internasional. Ewosemanten miturut sajarah lan kadadosan nyata, boten saben perang tansah dipunwiwiti déning dheklarasi makaten, kalebet wonten ing perang sadhèrèk.

Caranipun Perang

Cara ingkang baku kanggé ngayahi perang sanget gumantung dhumateng wiyaripun sasaran, kalebet bab-bab kados déné ngrebat tlatah, nglumpuhaken nagari saingan, ngrisakaken kamampuan mengsah supados boten saged ngawontenanken aksi militèr, nguwaosi jalmi sanès utawi ngakeni kang ndunungi pribumi dados nagari ingkang misah, ngantos dumugi pembantaian ètnis (genocide). Limrahipun saben aksi militèr déning satunggiling nagari lajeng dipunlawan déning satunggal utawi langkung nagari sanèsipun. Pramila, sasaran ingkang pokok saking sawenèh nagari dados nomer kalih tinimbang sasaran ingkang langkung nyereg inggih punika ngicalaken kakuwatan mengsah. Bab punika saged dipunayahi kanthi cara ngepung, ngancuraken wonten ing palagan, ndamel mengsah supados mlajeng utawi takluk, utawi ngancuraken mengsah kanthi cara ingkang boten langsung sepertos nyebaraken lelara utawi keluwèn.

Panyebab Perang

"Penyebab utawi sumber perang ingkang paling kondhang inggih punika pulitik... perang punika namung kalajengan saking pulitik, namung katambah déning cara-cara sanèsipun."-Carl von Clausewitz, Vom Kriege (On War)

Motivasi dhasar, tangtos, inggih kasadyan ngayahi perang, nanging motivasi saged dipunpérang kanthi spesifik. Motivasi kanggé perang mbok manawi bènten kanggé pihak ingkang mréntahaken perang kaliyan ingkang ngayahi perang. Satunggiling nagari ingkang badhé ngayahi perang kedah gadhah panjurung kapemimpinan, panjurung militèr, sarta panjurung rakyat. Satunggiling conto, wonten ing Perang Punic ingkang kaping tiga, Para pemimpin Romawi ngersaaken perang dhumateng Carthago kanggé nglumpuhaken kakiatan nagari saingan punika wau; déné militèr mbokmanawi ngersaaken badhé ngginakaken kasempatan kanggé nguwaosi lan ngancuraken kitha Carthago, nanging rakyat Romawi saged mangertos lan ngidinaken perang kanthi angkah ingkang bènten inggih punika kanggé ngicalaken budaya populèr tiyang Carthago, ingkang kabaripun remen ngurbanaken laré alit. Amargi kathah tiyang ingkang ndhèrèk sarujuk, perang saged njalari pangurbanan jiwa raga, sanajan saking motivasi ingkang bènten-bènten. Rupi-rupi téyori bab jalaran perang, antawisipun:

Téyori Sajarah

Para ahli sajarah radi kirang remen dhateng alasan ingkang rèmèh tumraping perang. A.J.P. Taylor njelasaken yèn perang punika kados déné kacilakan lalu lintas. Ing ngriku tansah wonten kondhisi lan situasi ingkang njalari, nanging boten wonten cara kanggé mgramalaken wonten pundi lan mbénjang menapa badhé kadadosan. Para ahli ngèlmu Sosial ngritik andharan punika, kanthi alasan yèn sadèrèngipun perang para pemimpin kanthi sadhar sampun ndamel kaputusan, pramila boten saged dipunwastani murni kacilakan. Sawenèh tiyang mbokmanawi saged mikantukaken pola ingkang sakedhikipun gadhah kahandhalan utawi reliabilitas, nanging amargi perang punika wujud maksad kolèktif saking jalmi kathah, tangtos angèl sanget kanggé ndamel sistem ramalan ingkang komplit lan murakabi.

Téyori Psikologi

Ahli Psikologi kados E.F.M. Durban lan John Bowlby mbantah yèn manungsa punika marisi dhasar kejem. Sementawis kekejeman punika dipunpendhem ing salebetipun masarakat normal, kadhangkawis kedah muncul inggih punika nalika perang. Kanyatan punika sinarengan kaliyan tandha-tandha sanèsipun kados ta displacement, inggih punika nalika tiyang nyaluraken keluhanipun awujud bias lan kabencèn utawi (hatred) dhumateng sukubangsa, nagari utawi ideologi sanès. Sementawis téyori punika gadhah andharan tumrap panyebabing perang, nanging boten saged nerangaken wonten pundi lan mbénjang manawa perang badhé kadadosan. Minangka tambahan, téyori punika nimbulaken pitakèn kéngin menapa kala-kala mangsa damé ingkang lami lan kala sanèsipun mangsa perang ingkang boten rampung-rampung. Ugi téyori punika boten saged nerangaken kadospundi satunggiling budaya manungsa saged ical ing salebeting perang.

Toeri Antropologi

Sawetawis Ahli Antropologi gadhah pandhangan ingkang bènten sanget bab perang. Para ahli punika nyimpulaken manawi perang punika dhasaripun saking budaya, ingkang dipunsinaoni kanthi prabawa nurture tinimbang alami (nature). Pramila punika bilih masarakat saged dipunreformasi, perang saged ical. Miturut aliran punika katampinipun perang kanthi alasan agami, ideologi lan Nasionalisme.

Téyori Sosiologi

Ngèlmu Sosiologi sampun dangu migatèkaken bab asal-usulipun perang, lan pinten-pinten èwu téyori sampun tuwuh, lan kathah ugi ingkang boten sarujuk satunggal téyori lan téyori sanèsipun.Ngèlmu Sosiologi mérang bab perang dados sawatawis téyori. Sepindhah, téyori Primat der Innenpulitik (Primacy of Domestic Politics) ingkang dhedhasar karya Eckart Kehr lan Hans-Ulrich Wehler, mratélaaken yèn perang punika kasil saking kondhisi domestik, kanthi sasaran agrèsi ingkang dipuntamtoaken déning kanyatan internasional. Pramila, Perang Donya I punika boten produk cecongkrahan internasional, prajanjèn rahasia, utawi kasaimbangan kekiatan nanging produk saking situasi ékonomi, situasi sosial, lan situasi pulitik salebeting saben nagari ingkang tumut perang. Andharan punika bènten kaliyan andharan tradhisional Primat der Außenpulitik (Primacy of Foreign Politics) saking Carl von Clausewitz lan Leopold von Ranke ingkang mbantah yèn punika kaputusan saking para kepala nagari lan situasi geopulitik ingkang nuwuhaken perang.

Téyori Dhémografi

Téyori Dhémografi saged dipunkempalaken dhumateng kalih kelas, inggih punika téyori Malthusian lan téyori ''youth bulge''.

Téyori Malthusian ningal satunggiling proporsi ingkang lepat tumrap tuwuhing kang ndunungi lan kirangipun dhaharan minangka jalaran konflik ingkang kejem. Déné téyori Youth Bulge radi bènten, inggih punika bab proporsi ingkang lepat antawis cacahing pemudha ingkang gadhah pendhidhikan inggil, lan cacahing kalenggahan wonten ing masarakat minangka sumber utami rupi-rupi kakerasan sosial kalebet ugi perang. Miturut téyori punika: "tiyang badhé ngemis kanggé dhaharan, naging manawi kanggé posisi utawi kalenggahan badhé némbak."

Téyori Ilmu Pulitik

Analisis statistik perang dipunwiwiti déning Lewis Fry Richardson nalka Perang Donya I. Database ingkang langkun anyar sanèsipun bab perang lan konflik senjata sampun dipunsusun déning Proyek Correlates of War, Peter Brecke lan Uppsala Department of Peace and Conflict Research.

Wonten rupi-rupi andharan miturut.téyori gayutan internasional. Pedhukung téyori realisme boten sarujuk yèn motivasi nagari inggih punika madosi kaamanan kanggé survival utawi supados tetep èksis. Satunggilin andharan, kadangkawis boten sarujuk dhateng pandhangan kaum realis, bab kathahing bukyos empiris kanggé njurung klaim yèn nagari ingkang dhémokratis boten badhé perang kaliyan sesaminipun, punika satunggiling andharan ingkang katelah democratic peace theory. Faktor sanèsipun ingkang kalebet inggih punika kawontenan bènten tumrap moral lan kapercayan agami, boten sarujuk ing babagan ékonomi lan dagang, mroklamasèkaken kamardhikan lan sanès sanèsipun. Téyori utami sanèsipun ingkang megepokan kaliyan Kakuasaan ing Hubungan Internasional lan machtpulitik inggih punika Téyori Transisi Kakuasaan, ingkang mérang donya dados sawatawis hirarki lan nerangaken yèn perang punika minangka siklus destabilisasi saking hegemoni kakuatan ageng.

Jinis Perang lan Paperangan

Déning Panyebab

Jinis	Conto
Ngrebut	Pecheneg lan Cuman raid ka Rus ing abad ka 9–abad ka13
Agresif	Perang Alexander Agung ing 323–323 BC
Kolonial	Perang Cina-Perancis
Pambebasan	Perang Algeria
Religius	Crusades
Dinastik	Perang Suksesi ing Spanyol
Dhagang	Perang Candhu
Revolusionèr	Perang Revolusi Perancis
Gerilya	Perang Ujung
Perang Sedhèrèk	Perang sedhèrèk ing Spanyol
Pamisahan Dhiri	Perang sedhèrèk ing Amérika

Perang Lingkungan

Lingkungan ing satunggiling perang gadhah prabawa ingkang ageng tumrap jinins perang, kalebet jinis médhan perang. Prmila prajurit kedah dipunlatih wonten ing rupi-rupi medhan perang, ing antawisipun:

en:Arctic warfare, perang kutub utawi perang ing mangsa asrep.
en:Desert warfare, perang ing ara-ara wedhi
en:Jungle warfare, perang wonten ing wana
en:Mobile warfare, perang ingkang mrayogèkaken kemampuan pindhah panggénan
en:Naval warfare, perang ing seganten
en:Sub-aquatic warfare, perang ngandhap samodra
en:Mountain warfare, perang gunung
en:Urban warfare, perang kitha
en:Air warfare, perang udara lan terjun payung
en:Space warfare, perang akasa
en:Electronic warfare, perang elèktronika
en:Border warfare, perang tapel wates
en:Mine warfare, perang ranjau
en:Psychological warfare, perang urat syaraf
en:Guerilla warfare, perang gerilya
en:Cyber warfare, perang donya maya
en:Energy warfare, perang enerji
en:Intellectual warfare, perang intelèktual kalebet ugi propaganda
en:Biological warfare, perang biologi
en:Nuclear Warfare, perang nuklir

Pratélan Perang miturut kurban

Angangka angka kalebet kurban sipil saking lelara, kelaparan, lan sanèsipun ugi bala ingkang ggugur wonten palagan.

60,000,000–72,000,000-Perang Donya II (1939–1945), (see World War II casualties)
30,000,000–60,000,000-Mongol Conquests (13th century) (see Invasi Mongol lan Invasi Tatar)
25,000,000-Manchu conquest of Ming Cina (1616–1662)
20,000,000-Pambrontakan Taiping (Cina, 1851–1864) (see Dungan revolt)
20,000,000-Perang Sino-Jepang II (1931–1945)
15,000,000–66,000,000-Perang Donya I (1914–1918) (see Kurban Perang Donya I) note that the larger number includes Spanish flu deaths
10,000,000-Warring States Era (Cina, 475 BC–221 BC)
7,000,000-20,000,000 Conquests of Timur the Lame (1360-1405) (see List of wars in the Muslim world)
5,000,000–9,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Ruslan (1917–1921)
5,000,000-Penaklukan Menelik II ka Ethiopia (1882-1898)
3,800,000-Perang Kongo II (1998–2004)
3,500,000–6,000,000-Perang Napoleon (1804–1815) (see Napoleonic Wars casualties)
3,000,000–11,500,000-Perang Telung puluh taun (1618–1648)
3,000,000–7,000,000-Pambrontakan Turban Kuning (Cina, 184–205)
2,500,000–3,500,000-Perang Koréa (1950–1953) (see Cold War)
2,300,000–3,800,000-Perang Vietnam (entire war 1945–1975)
- 300,000–1,300,000-Perang Indochina I (1945–1954)
- 100,000–300,000-Vietnamese Civil War (1954–1960)
- 1,750,000–2,100,000-American phase (1960–1973)
- 170,000-Final phase (1973–1975)
- 175,000–1,150,000-Secret War (1962–1975)
2,000,000–4,000,000-French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) (see Religious war)
2,000,000-Shaka's conquests (1816-1828)
300,000–3,000,000-Bangladesh Liberation War
1,500,000–2,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Afghanistan (1979-)
- 1,000,000–1,500,000 Soviet intervention (1979–1989)
1,300,000–6,100,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Cina (1928–1949) note that this figure excludes World War II casualties
- 300,000–3,100,000 before 1937
- 1,000,000–3,000,000 after World War II
1,000,000–1,200,000-Perang Pitung Taun (1756–1763)
1,000,000-Perang Iran-Iraq (1980–1988)
1,000,000-Japanese invasions of Koréa (1592-1598)
1,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk II Sudan (1983–2002)
1,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Nigeria (1967–1970)
618,000-970,000-American Civil War (including 350,000 from disease) (1861–1865)
900,000–1,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Mozambique(1976–1993)
868,000-1,400,000-Perag Pitung Taun (1756-1763)
800,000-1,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Rwanda (1990-1994)
800,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Kongo (1991–1997)
600,000 to 1,300,000-Perang Yhudi-Romawi I (see List of Roman wars)
580,000-Bar Kokhba’s revolt (132–135CE)
570,000-Perang Kamardhikan Eritrean (1961-1991)
550,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Somali (1988-)
500,000-1,000,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Spanyol (1936–1939)
500,000-Perang sadhèrèk ing Angola (1975–2002)
500,000-Perang sadhèrèk ing Uganda (1979–1986)
400,000–1,000,000-War of the Triple Alliance ing Paraguay (1864–1870)
400,000-Konflik Darfur (2003-)
400,000-Perang Pamisahan dhiri ing Spanyol (1701-1714)
371,000-Continuation War (1941-1944)
350,000-Great Northern War (1700-1721)
315,000-735,000-Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639-1651) English campaign ~40,000, Scottish 73,000, Irish 200,000-620,000
300,000–2,000,000-Revolusi Mexico (1910–1920)
300,000-Perang Russia-Circassian (1763-1864) (see Caucasian War)
300,000-First Perang Sadhèrèk Burundi (1972)
270,000–300,000-Crimean War (1854–1856)
255,000-1,120,000-Perang Philippine-America (1898-1913)
230,000–1,400,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Ethiopian (1974–1991)
220,000-Perang sadhèrèk Liberia (1989-)
214,000-655,000+-Perang Irak (2003-Present) (see 2003 invasion of Iraq)
200,000-1,000,000-Albigensian Crusade (1208-1259)
200,000–800,000-Warlord era in Cina (1917–1928)
200,000-Perang Punic II (BC218-BC204) (see List of Roman battles)
200,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Sierra Leone (1991–2000)
200,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Guatemala (1960–1996)
190,000-Perang Perancis-Prussia (1870–1871)
180,000-300,000-La Violencia (1948-1958)
170,000-Perang Kamardhikan Yunani (1821-1829)
150,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Libanon (1975–1990)
150,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Yemen Lèr (1962–1970)
150,000-Perang Ruslan-Jepang (1904–1905)
148,000-1,000,000-Perang Mangsa Asrep (1939)
125,000-Perang Eritrea-Ethiopia (1998–2000)
120,000-384,000 Perang Turki (1683-1699) (see Ottoman-Habsburg wars)
120,000-Perang Bosnia (1992–1995)
120,000-Perang sadhèrèk Algeria (1991-)
120,000-Perang Servile III (BC73-BC71)
117,000-500,000-Revolt in the Vendée (1793-1796)
101,000-115,000-Arab-Israèli conflict (1929-)
100,500-Perang Chaco (1932–1935)
100,000-1,000,000-War of the two brothers (1531–1532)
100,000-400,000-Irian Barat (1984-) (see Genocide in West Papua)
100,000-200,000-Timor Timur (1975-1978)
100,000-Perang Lempongan (1991)
100,000–1,000,000-Perang kamardhikan Algeria (1954–1962)
100,000-Perang Sèwu Dinten (1899–1901)
100,000-Peasants' War (1524-1525)
80,000-Perang Punic III (BC149-BC146)
75,000-200,000?-Conquests of Alexander the Great (BC336-BC323)
75,000-Perang sadhèrèk El Salvador (1980–1992)
75,000-Perang Boer II (1898–1902)
70,000-Boudica's uprising (AD60-AD61)
69,000-Konflik Internal ing Peru (1980-)
60,000-Konflik Sri Lanka/Tamil (1983-)
60,000-Pambrontakan Nicaragua (1972-91)
50,000-200,000-Perang Chechen I (1994–1996)
50,000-100,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Tajikistan (1992–1997)
50,000-Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) (see Wars involving England)
45,000-Perang Sadhèrèk Yunani (1945-1949)
41,00–100,000-Kashmir (1989-)
36,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Finlan (1918)
35,000-40,000-War of the Pacific (1879–1884)
35,000-45,000-Siege of Malta (1565) (see Ottoman wars in Europe)
31,000–100,000-Perang Chechen II (1999-)
30,000-Turkey/PKK (1984-)
30,000-Perang Cina-Vietnam (1979)
23,384-Perang India-Pakistani 1971 (December 1971)
23,000-Perang Nagorno-Karabakh (1988-1994)
20,000-49,600 U.S. Invasion of Afghanistan (2001 – 2002)
15,000–20,000-Perang Kamardhikan Kroasia (1991–1995)
11,053-Malayan Emergency (1948-1960)
10,000-Amadu's Jihad (1810-1818)
7,264–10,000-Perang India-Pakistan 1965 (August-September 1965)
7,000–24,000-American War of 1812 (1812-1815)
7,000-Perang Kosovo (1996–1999) (disputed)
5,000-Invasi Turki ka Cyprus (1974)
4,588-Perang Cina-India (1962)
4,000-Perang Waziristan (2004-2006)
4,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Irlandia (1922-23)
3,700-Northern Ireland conflict (1969-1998)
3,000-Perang Sadhèrèk ing Pasisir Gadhing (2002-)
2,899-Perang New Zealand (1845-1872)
2,604–7,000-Perang India-Pakistan 1947 (October 1947-December 1948)
2,000-Perang Sepak Bola (1969)
2,000-Perang kamardhikan Irlandia (1919-21)
1,975–4,500+-Konflik Israèl-Palestina (2000-)
1,547–2,173+-2006 Konflik Israèl-Lebanon
1,724-Perang Lapland (1945)
1,500-Revolusi Rumania (December 1989)
1,000-Zapatista uprising ing Chiapas (1994)
907-Perang Malvinas (1982)

Réferènsi

Bibliografi

Angelo Codevilla and Paul Seabury, War: Ends and Means (Potomac Books, Revised second edition by Angelo Codevilla, 2006) ISBN X
Angelo M. Codevilla, No Victory, No Peace (Rowman and Littlefield, 2005) ISBN
Fry, Douglas P., 2005, The Human Potential for Peace: An Anthropological Challenge to Assumptions about War and Violence, Oxford University Press.
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Fabio Maniscalco, (2007). World Heritage and War-monographic series "Mediterraneum", vol. VI. Massa, Naples. ISBN.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
Kelly, Raymond C., 2000, Warless Societies and the Origin of War, University of Michigan Press.
Small, Melvin & Singer, David J. (1982). Resort to Arms: International and Civil Wars,. Sage Publications. ISBN.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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Ugi pirsani

Umum

Pratélan

Dhasar Pangetahuan Militer

Pranala njawi

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The fraud of primitive authenticity Archived 2006-07-06 at the Wayback Machine.
Warfare among tribal peoples Archived 2010-11-21 at the Wayback Machine.
Tribal warfare kills nine in Indonésia's Papua Archived 2009-06-17 at the Wayback Machine.

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