Proto-Sino-Tibetan (PST) is the hypothetical linguistic reconstruction of the Sino-Tibetan proto-language and the common ancestor of all languages in it, including the Sinitic languages, the Tibetic languages, Yi, Bai, Burmese, Karen, Tangut, and Naga.
Paul K. Benedict (1972) placed a particular emphasis on Old Chinese, Classical Tibetan, Jingpho, Written Burmese, Garo, and Mizo in his discussion of Proto-Sino-Tibetan.
Proto-Sino-Tibetan | |
---|---|
PST, Proto-Trans-Himalayan | |
Reconstruction of | Sino-Tibetan languages |
Lower-order reconstructions |
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While Proto-Sino-Tibetan is commonly considered to have two direct descendants, Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman, in recent years several scholars have attempted to rename the group "Trans-Himalayan". In this case, Proto-Tibeto-Burman may be considered as equivalent to Proto-Sino-Tibetan if Sinitic is indeed not the first branch to split from Proto-Sino-Tibetan.
Reconstructed features include prefixes such as the causative s-, the intransitive m-, the miscellaneous b-, d-, g-, and r-, suffixes -s, -t, and -n, and a set of conditioning factors that resulted in the development of tone in most languages of the family. The existence of such elaborate system of inflectional changes in Proto-Sino-Tibetan makes the language distinctive from some of its modern descendants, such as the Sinitic languages, which have mostly or completely become analytic.
Proto-Sino-Tibetan, like Old Chinese, also included numerous consonant clusters, and was not a tonal language.
The table below shows consonant phonemes reconstructed by Benedict.[page needed]
Plosive | Fricative | Sonorant | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Nasal | Other | |
Labial | p | b | m | w | ||
Dental | t | d | s | z | n | r |
Palatal | c | ʒ | y | |||
Lateral | l | |||||
Velar | k | g | h | ŋ |
The reconstruction by Peiros & Starostin suggests a much more complex consonant inventory. The phonemes in brackets are reconstructions that are considered dubious.
Plosive/Affricate | Fricative | Sonorant | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unaspirated | Aspirated | |||||||
Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | Voiceless | Voiced | |
Labial | p | b | pʰ | (bʰ) | m | w | ||
Dental | t | d | tʰ | (dʰ) | n | r | ||
Alveolar | c | ʒ | cʰ | (ʒʰ) | s | |||
Palatal | ć | ʒ́ | ćʰ | ʒ́ʰ | ś | ń | y | |
Lateral | (ƛ) | l | ||||||
Velar | k | g | kʰ | (gʰ) | x | ɣ | ŋ | |
Uvular | (q) | (ɢ) | (qʰ) | (ɢʰ) | (χ) | |||
Laryngeal | ʔ |
The following tables show the reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan phonemes by Nathan Hill (2019).
Consonants | Labial | Coronal | Palatal | Velar | Labiovelar | Uvular | Labiouvular | Glottal | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasal | *m | *n | *ŋ | *ŋʷ | |||||
Plosive | voiced | *b | *d | *g | *ɢ | *ɢʷ | |||
voiceless | *p | *t | *k | *kʷ | *q | *ʔ | |||
Affricate | voiced | *dz | |||||||
voiceless | *ts | ||||||||
Fricatives | *(s) | ||||||||
Approximant | *l | *j | |||||||
Rhotic | *r |
The consonants /p t k q ʔ m n ŋ l r j/ can take coda position, as well as the cluster /rl/. While Hill does not reconstruct /j/ as an initial consonant due to Baxter and Sagart's Old Chinese reconstruction lacking such a phoneme, he mentions that Jacques and Schuessler suggest a /j/ initial for some Old Chinese words due to potential Tibetan or Rgyalrongic cognates.
Vowels | Front | Central | Back |
---|---|---|---|
Close | i | u | |
Mid | e | ə | o |
Open | a |
Hill also claims that his reconstruction is incomplete, as it does not account for Tibetic palatalization, proto-Burmish preglottalization, Sinitic aspirates, and the Sinitic type A and B distinction of syllables.
In Gong Huangcheng's reconstruction of the Proto-Sino-Tibetan language, the finals *-p, *-t, *-k, *-m, *-n, and *-ŋ in Proto-Sino-Tibetan remained in Proto-Sinitic and Proto-Tibeto-Burman. However, in Old Chinese, the finals *-k and *-ŋ that came after the close vowel *-i- underwent an irregular change of *-k>*-t and *-ŋ >*-n. In Proto-Tibeto-Burman, *-kw and *-ŋw underwent a sound change to become *-k and *-ŋ respectively, while in Old Chinese those finals remained until Middle Chinese, where the finals underwent the same sound change.
Furthermore, in Proto-Tibeto-Burman, the finals *-g, *-gw, and *-d underwent the following changes:
Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
---|---|---|---|
*-p | *-jəp | 汲 *kjəp | *ka·p |
泣 *khrjəp | *krap | ||
立 *(g-)rjəp | *g-ryap | ||
*-jap | 接 *tsjap | *tsyap | |
*-jup | 入 *njəp | *nup~ *nip | |
*-t | *-iat | 八 *priat | *b-r-gyat |
殺 *r-siat | *g-sat | ||
*-uat | 脫 *hluat | *g-lwat | |
*-jit | 一 *·jit | *it | |
*-k | *-ək | 翼 *lək | *lak |
*-jək | 織 *tjək | *tak | |
息 *sjək | *sak | ||
食 *N-ljək | *(m-)lyak | ||
飼 *s-ljəks | *(s-)lyak | ||
*-ik | 節 *tsik>*tsit | *tsik | |
縊 *·iks, *·jiks | *ik | ||
*-jik | 蝨 *srjik>*srjit | *s-rik | |
*-juk | 曲 *khjuk | *guk~kuk | |
*-kw | *-əkw | 毒 *dəkw | *duk~*tuk |
*-jəkw | 腹 *phjəkw, *bjəkw | *pu·k~*buk | |
六 *drjəkw | *d-ruk |
Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
---|---|---|---|
*-m | *-əm | 含 *gəm | *gam |
頷 *gəm | *gam | ||
*-jəm | 飲 *·jəmx | *am | |
尋 *ljəm | *la[·]m | ||
*-jim | 坅 *khjamx “pit” | *kim | |
*-um | 三 *səm | *g-sum | |
*-jum | 尋 *ljəm | *lum | |
*-n | *-an | 乾 *kan | *kan |
*-jin | 辛 *sjin | *m-sin | |
*-ng | *-jəng | 夢 *mjəngs | *mang |
蒸 *tjəng | *tang | ||
*-jang | 紡 *phjangx | *pang | |
涼 *grjang | *grang | ||
迎 *ngrjang | *ngang | ||
*-ing | 盈 *bling | *bling~pling | |
*-jing | 年 *ning>*nin | *ning | |
名 *mjing | *r-ming | ||
甥 *srjing | *sring | ||
薪 *sjing>*sjin | *sing | ||
仁 *njing>*njin | *s-ning | ||
*-ngw | *-jəngw | 躬 *kjəngw | *gung |
Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
---|---|---|---|
*-b | *-əb | 柔 *njəb>*njəgw | *nəw |
*-d | *-əd | 𤈦 *smjədx | *məy |
*-ad | 簸 *padx/s | *pwa·y | |
太 *tads | *tay | ||
蜾 *kwadx | *kwa·y | ||
我 *ngadx | *ngay | ||
移 *lad | *lay | ||
*-id | 四 *sjids | *b-liy | |
*-jid | 妣 *pjidx | *piy | |
畀 *sbjids | *biy | ||
几 *krjidx | *kriy | ||
屎 *skhljidx | *kliy | ||
死 *sjidx | *siy | ||
*-g | *-əg | 母 *məgx | *ma |
*-jəg | 負 *bjəgx | *ba, *bak | |
子 *tsjəgx | *tsa | ||
慈 *dzjəg | *m-dza | ||
孳 *dzjəgs | *za | ||
耳 *njəgx | *r-na~*g-na | ||
牛 *ngwjəg | *ngwa | ||
*-ag | 補 *pagx | *pa | |
苦 *khagx | *ka | ||
吾 *ngag | *nga | ||
五 *ngagx | *l-nga~*b-nga | ||
狐 *gwag | *gwa | ||
*-jag | 斧 *pjagx | *r-pwa | |
夫 *pjag | *(p)wa | ||
父 *bjagx | *pa | ||
無 *mjag | *ma | ||
魚 *ngjag | *ngya | ||
咀 *dzjag | *dza | ||
汝 *njagx | *na | ||
*-ug | 口 *khugx | *kuw | |
寇 *khugs | *r-kuw | ||
*-jug | 霧 *m(r)jugs | *(r-)muw | |
軀 *khjug | *(s-)kuw | ||
乳 *njugx | *nuw | ||
*-gw | *-əgw | 寶 *pəgwx | *puw |
抱 *bəgwx | *buw | ||
*-jəgw | 鳩 *kjəgw | *kuw | |
九 *kjəgwx | *d-kuw | ||
舅 *gjəgwx | *kuw | ||
*-agw | 豪 *gagw | *m/s-gaw | |
號 *gagws | *gaw | ||
熬 *ngagw | *r-ngaw | ||
臊 *sagw | *sa·w | ||
*-jagw | 飄/漂 *phjagw | *pyaw |
Proto-Sino-Tibetan | Old Chinese (Li Fang-Kuei) | Proto-Tibeto-Burman | |
---|---|---|---|
*-l | *-al | 肝 *kan | *m-kal |
*-ul | 本 *pən | *bul~*pul | |
*-jul | 銀 *ngjən | *(d)-ngul | |
閩 *mjən | *s-brul | ||
*-jal | 疲 *brjal | *bal | |
*-il | 洒 *silx | *(m-)s(y)il | |
*-r | *-ar | 播 *s-bars | *bwar |
皤 *bar, *par | *pwa:r | ||
*-jar | 販 *pjans | *par | |
鮮 *sjan | *sar | ||
*-uar | 酸 *suan | *swa·r | |
*-jur | 飛 *pjər | *pur~*pir |
Words which do not have reliable Sinitic parallels are accompanied by a (TB).
English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart) | |
---|---|---|---|
I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
Person (in general) | *mĭ | *mi | 民 *mi[ŋ] |
Male | *pă | *pʷa | 父 *p(r)aʔ |
Female | *mǝw | *mow | 母 *mˤoʔ (or məʔ) |
Name (of a person) | *miǝŋ | *miŋ | 名 *C.meŋ |
English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart) | |
---|---|---|---|
I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
Earth | *ƛăy | *ley ~ *lǝy | 地 *[l]ˤej-s |
Stone | *ƛɨāŋ ~ *ƛɨāk | *luŋ ~ *luk | 琭 *[r]ˤok |
Sand | *srāy | *sa | 沙 *sˤraj |
Fire | *mēyH | *mey | 火 *[qʷʰ]ˤəjʔ |
Smoke | *gʰiw | *kǝw | 熏 *qʰu[n] |
Water | *tujʔ | *t(w)i(y) | 水 *s.turʔ |
Rain | *(r-)qʰʷăH | *rwa ~ *wa | 雨 *C.ɢʷ(r)aʔ |
Sun | *nĭy | *nǝy | 日 *C.nik |
Moon (TB) | *(s-)lăH | *la | N/A |
Star | *(s-)q(ʰ)ār | *kar | 扈 *m-qˤaʔ |
Night | *yăH | *ya | 夜 *[ɢ]Ak-s |
Tree | *sĭŋ | *siŋ ~ *sik | 薪 *[s]i[n] |
Leaf | *lăp | *lap | 葉 *l[a]p |
Plant root | *bʰūl | *bul ~ *pul | 本 *C.pˤə[n]ʔ |
English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart) | |
---|---|---|---|
I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
Black, dark (TB) | *nǝk | *nak | 黑 *m̥ˤək |
White | wār | *hwār | 皤 *[b]ˤar |
Big | *tayH | *tay | 大 *lˤa[t]-s |
Cold | *(k-)răŋ ~ *(k-)răk | *glak ~ *glaŋ ~ *graŋ | 涼 *C.raŋ |
Warm | *lɨm | *lim ~ *lum | 融 *luŋ |
Long (TB) | *rĭŋ | *riŋ | N/A |
New | *cʰăr | *sar | 鮮 *s[a]r |
English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart) | |
---|---|---|---|
I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
To eat | *ʒʰa | *dzya | 咀 *dzaɁ |
To drink | *dʰɨn ~ *dʰɨŋ | *daŋ ~ *doŋ | 潼 *tjongs |
To bite/chew | *wā | *wa | |
To die | *sĭy(H) | *sǝy | 死 *sijʔ |
To know, to think | *siǝH | *syey | 悉 *[s]i[t] |
To hear (TB) | *tʰa(s) | *ta | N/A |
To sleep | *mĭyH | *mwǝy | 寐 *mi[t]-s |
To stand | *ryǝp | *r(y)ap | 立 *k.rәp |
To sit | *tūŋ ~ *tūk | *duŋ ~ *duk ~ *tuŋ ~ *tuk | 住 *dro(ʔ)-s |
Give | *pĭy | *bǝy | 畀 *pi[k]‑s |
English | Reconstruction by | Old Chinese (Baxter-Sagart) | |
---|---|---|---|
I. Peiros & S. Starostin | J. Matisoff | ||
1 | *dyiǝk | *dik ~ *t(y)ik ~ *t(y)ak | 一 *ʔi[t] |
2 | *nĭy | *ni | 二 *ni[j]-s |
3 | *sɨm | *sum | 三 *s.rum |
4 | *lĭy | *lǝy | 四 *s.li[j]-s |
5 | *ŋāH | *ŋa | 五 *C.ŋˤaʔ |
6 | *rŭk | *ruk | 六 *k.ruk |
7 | *(s-)nĭt | *ni | 七 *[tsʰ]i[t] |
8 | *ryēt | *gyat ~ *ryat ~ *rit | 八 *pˤret |
9 | *kwɨH | *gǝw ~ *kǝw | 九 *[k]uʔ |
10 | *k(ʰ)ĭp | *g(y)ip | 十 *t.[g]әp |
100 | *(p-)ryā | *gya | 百 *pˤrak |
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