Css
Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) is a style sheet language used for specifying the presentation and styling of a document written in a markup language such as HTML or XML (including XML dialects such as SVG, MathML or XHTML).
CSS is a cornerstone technology of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and JavaScript.
 The official logo of the latest version, CSS 3 | |
 Example of CSS source code | |
| Filename extension | .css |
|---|---|
| Internet media type | text/css |
| Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) | public.css |
| Developed by | World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) |
| Initial release | 17 December 1996 |
| Latest release | CSS 2.1 : Level 2 Revision 1 12 April 2016 |
| Type of format | Style sheet language |
| Container for | Style rules for HTML elements (tags) |
| Contained by | HTML Documents |
| Open format? | Yes |
| Website | www |
CSS is designed to enable the separation of content and presentation, including layout, colors, and fonts. This separation can improve content accessibility;[further explanation needed] provide more flexibility and control in the specification of presentation characteristics; enable multiple web pages to share formatting by specifying the relevant CSS in a separate .css file, which reduces complexity and repetition in the structural content; and enable the .css file to be cached to improve the page load speed between the pages that share the file and its formatting.
Separation of formatting and content also makes it feasible to present the same markup page in different styles for different rendering methods, such as on-screen, in print, by voice (via speech-based browser or screen reader), and on Braille-based tactile devices. CSS also has rules for alternate formatting if the content is accessed on a mobile device.
The name cascading comes from the specified priority scheme to determine which declaration applies if more than one declaration of a property match a particular element. This cascading priority scheme is predictable.
The CSS specifications are maintained by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). Internet media type (MIME type) text/css is registered for use with CSS by RFC 2318 (March 1998). The W3C operates a free CSS validation service for CSS documents.
In addition to HTML, other markup languages support the use of CSS including XHTML, plain XML, SVG, and XUL. CSS is also used in the GTK widget toolkit.
Syntax
CSS has a simple syntax and uses a number of English keywords to specify the names of various style properties.
Style sheet
A style sheet consists of a list of rules. Each rule or rule-set consists of one or more selectors, and a declaration block.
Selector
In CSS, selectors declare which part of the markup a style applies to by matching tags and attributes in the markup itself.
Selector types
Selectors may apply to the following:
- all elements of a specific type, e.g. the second-level headers h2
- elements specified by attribute, in particular:
- id: an identifier unique within the document, denoted in the selector language by a hash prefix e.g.
#id - class: an identifier that can annotate multiple elements in a document, denoted by a dot prefix e.g.
.classname(the phrase "CSS class", although sometimes used, is a misnomer, as element classes—specified with the HTML class attribute—is a markup feature that is distinct from browsers' CSS subsystem and the related W3C/WHATWG standards work on document styles; see RDF and microformats for the origins of the "class" system of the Web content model)
- id: an identifier unique within the document, denoted in the selector language by a hash prefix e.g.
- elements depending on how they are placed relative to others in the document tree.
Classes and IDs are case-sensitive, start with letters, and can include alphanumeric characters, hyphens, and underscores. A class may apply to any number of instances of any element. An ID may only be applied to a single element.
Pseudo-classes
Pseudo-classes are used in CSS selectors to permit formatting based on information that is not contained in the document tree.
One example of a widely used pseudo-class is :hover, which identifies content only when the user "points to" the visible element, usually by holding the mouse cursor over it. It is appended to a selector as in a:hover or #elementid:hover.
A pseudo-class classifies document elements, such as :link or :visited, whereas a pseudo-element makes a selection that may consist of partial elements, such as ::first-line or ::first-letter. Note the distinction between the double-colon notation used for pseudo-elements and the single-colon notation used for pseudo-classes.
Combinators
Multiple simple selectors may be joined using combinators to specify elements by location, element type, id, class, or any combination thereof. The order of the selectors is important. For example, div .myClass {color: red;} applies to all elements of class myClass that are inside div elements, whereas .myClass div {color: red;} applies to all div elements that are inside elements of class myClass. This is not to be confused with concatenated identifiers such as div.myClass {color: red;} which applies to div elements of class myClass.
Summary of selector syntax
The following table provides a summary of selector syntax indicating usage and the version of CSS that introduced it.
| Pattern | Matches | First defined in CSS level |
|---|---|---|
E | an element of type E | 1 |
E:link | an E element that is the source anchor of a hyperlink whose target is either not yet visited (:link) or already visited (:visited) | 1 |
E:active | an E element during certain user actions | 1 |
E::first-line | the first formatted line of an E element | 1 |
E::first-letter | the first formatted letter of an E element | 1 |
.c | all elements with class="duhoc-en c" | 1 |
#myid | the element with id="myid" | 1 |
E.warning | an E element whose class is "warning" (the document language specifies how class is determined) | 1 |
E#myid | an E element with ID equal to "myid" | 1 |
.c#myid | the element with class="duhoc-en c" and ID equal to "myid" | 1 |
E F | an F element descendant of an E element | 1 |
* | any element | 2 |
E[foo] | an E element with a "foo" attribute | 2 |
E[foo="bar"] | an E element whose "foo" attribute value is exactly equal to "bar" | 2 |
E[foo~="bar"] | an E element whose "foo" attribute value is a list of whitespace-separated values, one of which is exactly equal to "bar" | 2 |
E[foo|="en"] | an E element whose "foo" attribute has a hyphen-separated list of values beginning (from the left) with "en" | 2 |
E:first-child | an E element, first child of its parent | 2 |
E:lang(fr) | an element of type E in language "fr" (the document language specifies how language is determined) | 2 |
E::before | generated content before an E element's content | 2 |
E::after | generated content after an E element's content | 2 |
E > F | an F element child of an E element | 2 |
E + F | an F element immediately preceded by an E element | 2 |
E[foo^="bar"] | an E element whose "foo" attribute value begins exactly with the string "bar" | 3 |
E[foo$="bar"] | an E element whose "foo" attribute value ends exactly with the string "bar" | 3 |
E[foo*="bar"] | an E element whose "foo" attribute value contains the substring "bar" | 3 |
E:root | an E element, root of the document | 3 |
E:nth-child(n) | an E element, the n-th child of its parent | 3 |
E:nth-last-child(n) | an E element, the n-th child of its parent, counting from the last one | 3 |
E:nth-of-type(n) | an E element, the n-th sibling of its type | 3 |
E:nth-last-of-type(n) | an E element, the n-th sibling of its type, counting from the last one | 3 |
E:last-child | an E element, last child of its parent | 3 |
E:first-of-type | an E element, first sibling of its type | 3 |
E:last-of-type | an E element, last sibling of its type | 3 |
E:only-child | an E element, only child of its parent | 3 |
E:only-of-type | an E element, only sibling of its type | 3 |
E:empty | an E element that has no children (including text nodes) | 3 |
E:target | an E element being the target of the referring URI | 3 |
E:enabled | a user interface element E that is enabled | 3 |
E:disabled | a user interface element E that is disabled | 3 |
E:checked | a user interface element E that is checked (for instance a radio button or checkbox) | 3 |
E:not(s) | an E element that does not match simple selector s | 3 |
E ~ F | an F element preceded by an E element | 3 |
Declaration block
A declaration block consists of a pair of braces ({}) enclosing a semicolon-separated list of declarations.
Declaration
Each declaration itself consists of a property, a colon (:), and a value. Optional white-space may be around the declaration block, declarations, colons, and semi-colons for readability.
Properties
Properties are specified in the CSS standard. Each property has a set of possible values. Some properties can affect any type of element, and others apply only to particular groups of elements.
Values
Values may be keywords, such as "center" or "inherit", or numerical values, such as 200px (200 pixels), 50vw (50 percent of the viewport width) or 80% (80 percent of the parent element's width).
Color values can be specified with keywords (e.g. "red"), hexadecimal values (e.g. #FF0000, also abbreviated as #F00), RGB values on a 0 to 255 scale (e.g. rgb(255, 0, 0)rgba(255, 0, 0, 0.8)), or HSL or HSLA values (e.g. hsl(0 100% 50%), hsl(0 100% 50% / 0.8)).
Non-zero numeric values representing linear measures must include a length unit, which is either an alphabetic code or abbreviation, as in 200px or 50vw; or a percentage sign, as in 80%. Some units – cm (centimetre); in (inch); mm (millimetre); pc (pica); and pt (point) – are absolute, which means that the rendered dimension does not depend upon the structure of the page; others – em (em); ex (ex) and px (pixel)[clarification needed] – are relative, which means that factors such as the font size of a parent element can affect the rendered measurement. These eight units were a feature of CSS 1 and retained in all subsequent revisions. The proposed CSS Values and Units Module Level 3 will, if adopted as a W3C Recommendation, provide seven further length units: ch; Q; rem; vh; vmax; vmin; and vw.
Use
Before CSS, nearly all presentational attributes of HTML documents were contained within the HTML markup. All font colors, background styles, element alignments, borders, and sizes had to be explicitly described, often repeatedly, within the HTML. CSS lets authors move much of that information to another file, the style sheet, resulting in considerably simpler HTML. And additionally, as more and more devices are able to access responsive web pages, different screen sizes and layouts begin to appear. Customizing a website for each device size is costly and increasingly difficult. The modular nature of CSS means that styles can be reused in different parts of a site or even across sites, promoting consistency and efficiency.
For example, headings (h1 elements), sub-headings (h2), sub-sub-headings (h3), etc., are defined structurally using HTML. In print and on the screen, choice of font, size, color and emphasis for these elements is presentational.
Before CSS, document authors who wanted to assign such typographic characteristics to, say, all h2 headings had to repeat HTML presentational markup for each occurrence of that heading type. This made documents more complex, larger, and more error-prone and difficult to maintain. CSS allows the separation of presentation from structure. CSS can define color, font, text alignment, size, borders, spacing, layout and many other typographic characteristics, and can do so independently for on-screen and printed views. CSS also defines non-visual styles, such as reading speed and emphasis for aural text readers. The W3C has now deprecated the use of all presentational HTML markup.
For example, under pre-CSS HTML, a heading element defined with red text would be written as:
<h1><font color="red">Chapter 1.font>h1> Using CSS, the same element can be coded using style properties instead of HTML presentational attributes:
<h1 style="color: red;">Chapter 1.h1> The advantages of this may not be immediately clear but the power of CSS becomes more apparent when the style properties are placed in an internal style element or, even better, an external CSS file. For example, suppose the document contains the style element:
<style> h1 { color: red; } style> All h1 elements in the document will then automatically become red without requiring any explicit code. If the author later wanted to make h1 elements blue instead, this could be done by changing the style element to:
<style> h1 { color: blue; } style> rather than by laboriously going through the document and changing the color for each individual h1 element.
The styles can also be placed in an external CSS file, as described below, and loaded using syntax similar to:
<link href="path/to/file.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"> This further decouples the styling from the HTML document and makes it possible to restyle multiple documents by simply editing a shared external CSS file.
Sources
CSS, or Cascading Style Sheets, offers a flexible way to style web content, with styles originating from browser defaults, user preferences, or web designers. These styles can be applied inline, within an HTML document, or through external .css files for broader consistency. Not only does this simplify web development by promoting reusability and maintainability, it also improves site performance because styles can be offloaded into dedicated .css files that browsers can cache. Additionally, even if the styles cannot be loaded or are disabled, this separation maintains the accessibility and readability of the content, ensuring that the site is usable for all users, including those with disabilities. Its multi-faceted approach, including considerations for selector specificity, rule order, and media types, ensures that websites are visually coherent and adaptive across different devices and user needs, striking a balance between design intent and user accessibility.
Multiple style sheets
Multiple style sheets can be imported. Different styles can be applied depending on the output device being used; for example, the screen version can be quite different from the printed version, so authors can tailor the presentation appropriately for each medium.
Cascading
The style sheet with the highest priority controls the content display. Declarations not set in the highest priority source are passed on to a source of lower priority, such as the user agent style. The process is called cascading.
One of the goals of CSS is to allow users greater control over presentation. Someone who finds red italic headings difficult to read may apply a different style sheet. Depending on the browser and the website, a user may choose from various style sheets provided by the designers, or may remove all added styles, and view the site using the browser's default styling, or may override just the red italic heading style without altering other attributes. Browser extensions like Stylish and Stylus have been created to facilitate the management of such user style sheets. In the case of large projects, cascading can be used to determine which style has a higher priority when developers do integrate third-party styles that have conflicting priorities, and to further resolve those conflicts. Additionally, cascading can help create themed designs, which help designers fine-tune aspects of a design without compromising the overall layout.
CSS priority scheme
| Priority | CSS source type | Description |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Importance | The "!important" annotation overwrites the previous priority types |
| 2 | Inline | A style applied to an HTML element via HTML "style" attribute |
| 3 | Media Type | A property definition applies to all media types unless a media-specific CSS is defined |
| 4 | User defined | Most browsers have the accessibility feature: a user-defined CSS |
| 5 | Selector specificity | A specific contextual selector (#heading p) overwrites generic definition |
| 6 | Rule order | Last rule declaration has a higher priority |
| 7 | Parent inheritance | If a property is not specified, it is inherited from a parent element |
| 8 | CSS property definition in HTML document | CSS rule or CSS inline style overwrites a default browser value |
| 9 | Browser default | The lowest priority: browser default value is determined by W3C initial value specifications |
Specificity
Specificity refers to the relative weights of various rules. It determines which styles apply to an element when more than one rule could apply. Based on the specification, a simple selector (e.g. H1) has a specificity of 1, class selectors have a specificity of 1,0, and ID selectors have a specificity of 1,0,0. Because the specificity values do not carry over as in the decimal system, commas are used to separate the "digits" (a CSS rule having 11 elements and 11 classes would have a specificity of 11,11, not 121).
Thus the selectors of the following rule result in the indicated specificity:
| Selectors | Specificity |
|---|---|
h1 {color: white;} | 0, 0, 0, 1 |
p em {color: green;} | 0, 0, 0, 2 |
.grape {color: red;} | 0, 0, 1, 0 |
p.bright {color: blue;} | 0, 0, 1, 1 |
p.bright em.dark {color: yellow;} | 0, 0, 2, 2 |
#id218 {color: brown;} | 0, 1, 0, 0 |
style=" " | 1, 0, 0, 0 |
Examples
Consider this HTML fragment:
<html> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <style> #xyz { color: blue; } style> head> <body> <p id="xyz" style="color: green;">To demonstrate specificityp> body> html> In the above example, the declaration in the style attribute overrides the one in the
Bootstrap
Foundation
Design methodologies
As the size of CSS resources used in a project increases, a development team often needs to decide on a common design methodology to keep them organized. The goals are ease of development, ease of collaboration during development, and performance of the deployed stylesheets in the browser. Popular methodologies include OOCSS (object-oriented CSS), ACSS (atomic CSS), CSS (organic Cascade Style Sheet), SMACSS (scalable and modular architecture for CSS), and BEM (block, element, modifier).
See also
References
External links
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